The history of modern Christianity concerns Christianity from the end of the Early Modern era to the present day. History of Early Modern Christianity is usually taken to begin with the Protestant Reform c. 1517-1525 (usually rounded to 1500) and ended at the end of the 18th century with the commencement of the Industrial Revolution and events leading to the French Revolution of 1789. This article covers only 1720 until the current date. For the early modern period, see articles on Protestant Reform, Counter-Reformation and the Catholic Church and Age of Discovery.
Being common throughout Europe in the Middle Ages, Christianity flourished throughout the world during the Age of Exploration. Christianity has become the world's largest religion. Christianity differs significantly from other religions in the claim that Jesus Christ is God the Son, but throughout his history he has overcome the schism and theological disputes that have produced many different churches. The largest branch of Christianity is the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Protestant churches. After the Fall of Constantinople, Christianity followed two different paths: Western Christianity and Eastern Christianity.
Video History of modern Christianity
Kekristenan Barat
Reformasi (1520-1641)
Age of Enlightenment (1640-1740)
Enlightenment is the Church's new challenge. In contrast to the Protestant Reformation, which questions some Christian doctrines, the Enlightenment questions Christianity as a whole. In general, it raises the human mind upon divine revelation and low religious authority such as the papacy based on it
Puritan Movement
Counter-Reformation on the Continent and the growth of the Puritan party dedicated to Protestant reforms further polarized the Elizabethan Era, though it was not until the 1640s that Britain experienced a religious dispute in proportion to that of its neighbors had suffered several generations before.
The beginning of the Puritan movement (late 16th century) was the Reformed or Calvinist and was a movement for reform in the Church of England. Its origins lie in dissatisfaction with the Elizabethan Religious Settlement. The desire is for the Church of England to resemble Protestant churches in Europe, especially Geneva. The Puritans object to the ornaments and rituals in the churches as idolaters (robes, surik, organs, genuflection), which they perceive as "pompousness and popish wrath." (See Controversy on Marriage.) They also object to ecclesiastical courts. They refused to fully support all of the ritual and formula guidelines of the Book of Common Prayer ; the imposition of its liturgical order by the force of law and examination sharpened Puritanism into a definite opposition movement.
The Puritan movement is then often referred to as Dissenters and Nonconformists and ultimately leads to the formation of various denominations of the Reformation.
The most famous and famous emigration to America is the migration of the Puritans, or pilgrims, leaving England so that they can live in an area with Puritanism that is designated an exclusive civil religion. Although they had left England because of the suppression of their religious practices, most Puritans then settled in the Low Countries but found irreverence there, where the state was hesitant of imposing religious practice, as unacceptable, so in the hope of the Puritan utopia, set out to establish a British colony in New England, which later became the United States.
These Puritan separatists are also known as "pilgrims". After establishing a colony in Plymouth (which later became Massachusetts) in 1620, Puritan pilgrims received a charter from the King of England who legitimized their colony, enabling them to trade and trade with merchants in England, in accordance with the principles of mercantilism. This successful, though initially difficult, colony marked the beginning of the Protestant presence in America (the earlier French, Spanish and Portuguese settlements were Catholic), and became a sort of spiritual and economic liberation oasis that persecuted Protestants and others. minorities from the British Isles and Europe (and later, from all over the world) fled to peace, freedom, and opportunity.
The original intention of the colonists was to build a spiritual Puritanism, which has been rejected for them in England and throughout Europe to engage in a peaceful trade with British and Native American Indians and Christianize American society.
The most famous colonization by Protestants in the New World is that of the English Puritans in North America. Unlike Spain or France, the British colonists made surprisingly little effort to evangelize native peoples.
Roman Catholic Mission
The Roman Catholic Church established a number of Missions to transform indigenous peoples. At the same time, missionaries like those of the Jesuits, Augustinians, Franciscans, and Dominicans moved to Asia and the Far East. The Portuguese send missions to Africa. Jesuit Matteo Ricci's mission to China was relatively calm and focused on adoption of the Catholic faith to Chinese thought, allowing, among other things, the worship of the dead. The Vatican disagreed and forbade any adaptation in the so-called Chinese Rite controversy in 1692 and 1742. The expansion of the Portuguese Catholic Empire and the Spanish Empire with the crucial role played by the Roman Catholic Church led to the Christianization of indigenous peoples from the Americas such as the Aztecs and the Incas, but, until the 19th century, the mission had to work under Spanish and Portuguese government and military.
Revivalism (1720-1906)
Revivalism refers to the rise of the Calvinists and Wesleyans, called the Great Awakening, in North America which saw the development of Congregationalist, Presbyterian, Baptist and new Methodist churches. When the movement finally faded, it gave rise to a new Restoration movement.
Great Awakenings
The First Great Awakening is a wave of religious enthusiasm among Protestants in American colonies. c . 1730-1740, emphasizes the traditional Reformed virtue of the teaching of God, the rudimentary liturgy, and the deeply felt guilt and personal redemption of Christ Jesus. The Sydney historian E. Ahlstrom sees it as part of the "great international Protestant upheaval" which also created Pietism in Germany, Revival Evangelicals and Methodism in England. It centers on reviving the established spirituality of the church, and largely affects Congregational, Presbyterian, Dutch Reformed, Reformed, Baptist and Methodist churches, while also spreading in slave populations. Second Awakening (1800-1830s), unlike the first, focuses on the non-church and seeks to instill a deep sense of personal salvation as experienced in revival meetings. It also sparked the beginning of the Restoration Movement, the Latter-day Saint movement, Adventism and Holiness. The Third Awakening began in 1857 and was most prominent in taking the movement around the world, especially in English-speaking countries. The last group to emerge from the "great revival" in North America is Pentecostalism, rooted in the Methodist movement, Wesleyan, and Holiness, and began in 1906 at Azusa Street, in Los Angeles. Pentecostalism will then lead to the Charismatic movement.
French Revolution and worship of Reason
The problem got worse with the violent anti-clericalism of the French Revolution. A direct attack on the wealth of the Catholic Church and related complaints leads to the massive nationalization of church property and the effort to establish a state-run church. A large number of priests refused to take oath of adherence to the National Assembly, which caused the Catholic Church to be banned and replaced by a new religion of worship of "Reason" along with the new French Republican Calendar. In this period, all the monasteries were destroyed, 30,000 priests were exiled and hundreds more were killed.
When Pope VI sided with the revolution in the First Coalition, Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Italy. The 82-year-old whale was taken as a prisoner to France in February 1799 and died in Valence August 29, 1799 after six months in captivity. To win popular support for his rule, Napoleon re-established the Catholic Church in France through the 1801 Concordat. All of Europe, the end of Napoleonic wars marked by the Vienna Congress, brought the Catholic awakening, renewed spirits, and new respect. to the papacy after the destruction of the previous era.
Restorationism
Restorationism refers to unaffiliated movements that regard contemporary Christianity, in all its forms, to deviations from true Christianity, which these groups then try to "Reconstruct", often using the Book of Acts as a "guidebook." Restorationism developed from the Second Awakening and is historically connected with the Protestant Reformation, but differs in the Restoration does not usually describe themselves as "reforming" the Christian church that has persisted since the time of Jesus, but as it restored the Church to which they believe is lost at some point. The name of the Restoration is also used to describe the Latter-day Saints (Mormon) and the Movement of Jehovah's Witnesses.
Latter-day Saints
The driving force behind and the founder of the Latter-day Saint movement is Joseph Smith, Jr., and to a lesser extent, during the first two years of the movement, Oliver Cowdery. Throughout his life, Smith told of the experiences he had as a boy after seeing God the Father and Jesus Christ as two separate beings, who told him that the true church had been lost and would be restored through him, and that he would be given authority to organizing and leading the true Church of Christ. Smith and Cowdery also explain that the angels of John the Baptist, Peter, James and John visited them in 1829 and gave them authority to reestablish the Church of Christ and in 1838 Joseph Smith announced that he had received revelation from God who officially changed his name to < i> The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints .
Smith first published the Book of Mormon in March 1830, believed by LDS members to be translated from Gold Plates buried in the ground, and contains notes about America between about 600 BC and 400 AD and a genuine church of Jesus in it.
In 1844, William Law and several other Latter-day Saints in the leadership position of the church openly denounced Smith's polygamous secret practice in the controversial Nauvoo Expositor, and formed their own church. The city council of Nauvoo, Illinois then has a destroyed Expositor printing machine. Despite Smith's later offer to pay compensation for the destroyed property, Smith's critics and the church consider the destruction to be a daunting task. Some called for the Latter-day Saints to be released or destroyed. After Smith's massacre in Carthage, Illinois, several prominent members of the church claimed to be Smith's legitimate successor.
These claims resulted in a succession crisis, in which the majority of church members followed Brigham Young, he became the senior Apostle of the church; others follow Sidney Rigdon or James Strang. The crisis produced some permanent schisms as well as the formation of splinter groups occasionally, some of which are no longer present. These groups are sometimes referred to under two geographical titles: "Prairie Children" (those who remain in the Midwest of the United States) and "Rocky Mountain Saints" (those who follow Brigham Young to a state later state Utah). Today, there are many divisive organizations that regard themselves as part of the Latter-day Saint movement, although in many cases they do not recognize other branches as legitimate and regard their own traditions as the only true and official version of the church founded Smith.. The majority of Latter-day Saints are included in the largest denomination, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) which claims 13 million members worldwide. The second largest denomination is the Community of Christ, which reports over 250,000 members.
Western Christianity since the 20th century
Fascism
Fascism describes some related political regimes in 20th century Europe, especially Nazi Germany Hitler, Italian Fascist Mussolini and Spanish Franco falang. About Italian Fascism Pope Pius XI is said to have been quite skeptical and G. K. Chesterton was friendly but critical. In the Spanish Civil War, Roman Catholics internationally espoused neutral or on the Franco side, because of the de-mono's tolerance for anti-religious violence in AzaÃÆ'Â ± a and just before this conflict took place. Dollfuss in Austria is the ideal politician who realizes Pope Pius XI Quadragesimo anno .
Nazism
The position of Christians in Nazi Fascism is very complex.
Regarding this issue, historian Derek Holmes wrote, "There is no doubt that the Catholic district, rejecting the appeal of National Socialism [Nazism] is much better than the Protestant one." Pope Pius XI states - Mit brennender Sorge - that the Fascist government has hidden "pagan intentions" and declared incompatibility of the Catholic and Totalitarian Fascist State positions, which put the nation above God and fundamental human rights and dignity. His statement that "Spiritually, [Christians] all Semitic" encouraged the Nazis to give him the title "Christian Chief World Christian."
Catholic priests were executed in concentration camps with the Jews; for example, 2,600 Catholic priests were imprisoned in Dachau, and 2,000 of them were executed. Furthermore, 2,700 Polish priests were executed (one fourth of all Polish priests), and 5,350 Polish nuns either displaced, imprisoned, or executed. Many lay Catholics and priests played an important role in protecting Jews during the Holocaust, including Pope Pius XII (1876-1958). The head of the Roman rabbi became Catholic in 1945 and, in honor of the actions the Pope did to save the Jewish life, he took the name Eugenio (first name of the pope). A former Israeli consul in Italy claimed: "The Catholic Church saved more Jewish lives during the war than all other churches, religious institutions and rescue organizations put together."
The relationship between Nazism and Protestantism, especially the German Lutheran Church, is complex. Although the majority of Protestant church leaders in Germany support an increasing anti-Jewish activity, some, such as Dietrich Bonhoeffer (a Lutheran pastor) are strongly opposed to the Nazis. Bonhoeffer was later found guilty of conspiracy to kill Hitler and executed.
Ecumenism
Ecumenism broadly refers to the movement between Christian groups to establish a degree of unity through dialogue. " Ecumenism " is derived from the Greek ????????? (oikoumene), meaning "inhabited world", but more figuratively something like "universal unity." This movement can be divided into Catholic and Protestant movements, with the last movement characterized by the redefined ecclesiology of "denominationalism" (which the Catholic Church rejected).
Catholic Ecumenism
Over the last century, a number of steps have been made to reconcile the schism between the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church. Although progress has been made, concerns over the primacy of the pope and the independence of smaller Orthodox churches have hindered the final settlement of disunity.
On 30 November 1895, Pope Leo XIII published the Apostolic Letter Orientalium Dignitas (On Churches in the East) that maintained the importance and continuation of Eastern traditions for the whole Church. On December 7, 1965, a Catholic-Orthodox Joint Declaration of Pope Paul VI and Ecumenical Patriarch Athenagoras I was issued to elevate the excommunication exile 1054.
Some of the most difficult questions in relation to the ancient Eastern Churches concern some doctrines (ie Filioque, Scholasticism, functional goals of asceticism, God's essence, Hesychasm, Fourth Crusade, the formation of the Latin Empire, Uniatism to note but some) as well as practical matters such as the concrete practice of claiming papal primacy and how to ensure that ecclesial unity does not mean merely the absorption of smaller Churches by the much larger Latin component of the Catholic Church (the single largest denomination of religions in the world), and the suppression or abandonment of the theological heritage , liturgis and their own rich culture.
In connection with Catholic relations with the Protestant community, specific commissions are established to develop dialogue and documents that have been created that aim to identify points of doctrinal unity, such as the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification produced by the Lutheran World Federation in 1999.
Ecumenism in Protestantism
The ecumenical movements in Protestantism have focused on defining lists of doctrines and practices that are essential for becoming Christians and thus extending to all groups that fulfill this basic criterion of equal (equal or less) status, with perhaps the group itself still maintaining the " first among the same "positions." This process involves redefining the notion of "Church" from traditional theology.This ecclesiology, known as denominationalism, holds that every group (which meets the essential criterion "becomes Christian") is a subgroup of "Church Christianity "is itself a pure abstract concept without direct representation, ie no group, or" denomination ", claims to be" the Church. "Clearly, this ecclesiology is different from any other group that actually thinks of themselves as" the Church. "" Essential Criteria "generally consists of the belief in the Trinity, the belief that Jesus Christ is ad it is the only way to have forgiveness and eternal life, and that He died and rose again physically.
Trends in theology
Modernism and liberal Christianity
Liberal Christianity, sometimes called liberal theology, is an umbrella term that encompasses diverse movements and religious atmosphere based on philosophy in the late 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. The word "liberal" in liberal Christianity does not refer to the agenda of political left or set of beliefs, but rather to the freedom of the dialectical process associated with continental philosophy and other philosophical and religious paradigms developed during the Enlightenment.
Fundamentalism
Fundamentalist Christianity is a movement that emerged mainly in Protestant England and America in the late 19th and early 20th centuries as a reaction to certain liberal Protestant modernisms and groups that rejected the fundamentalist doctrines of Christianity but still called themselves "Christians." Thus, fundamentalism seeks to rebuild an undeniable teaching without abandoning Christian identity, "the basics": the inerrancy of the Bible, Sola Scriptura, the Virgin Birth of Jesus, the doctrine of substitution, the resurrection of the body of Jesus, and the imminent return of Jesus Christ.
Second Vatican Council
On October 11, 1962, Pope John XXIII opened the Second Vatican Council, the 21st ecumenical council of the Catholic Church. This council is "shepherding", emphasizing and clarifying the dogmas that have been defined, revising liturgical practices, and providing guidance to articulate the traditional Church teachings of today. This Council is perhaps best known for its instructions that the Mass can be celebrated in everyday language and also in Latin
Maps History of modern Christianity
Eastern Christianity
Russian Orthodox
Orthodoxy is very strong in Russia, which recently gained autocephalous status, and as the only part of the Orthodox fellowship that remained outside the control of the Ottoman Empire; Moscow calls itself the Third Rome, as the heir of Constantinople. In 1721 Tsar Peter I completely abolished the patriarchate and thus the Russian Orthodox Church effectively became a government department, ruled by the Holy Synod composed of senior bishops and lay bureaucrats appointed by the Tsar himself. This continued into the 20th century.
Orthodoxy under Ottoman rule
In 1453, Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Empire. Under Ottoman rule, the Greek Orthodox Church gained substantial power as an autonomous millet. The ecumenical patriarch is the religious and administrative ruler of all the "Greek Orthodox peoples" (Ottoman administrative unit), which includes all the Eastern Orthodox subjects of the Empire. As a result of the Ottoman conquests and the fall of Constantinople, the entire Orthodox alliance of the Balkans and Near East was suddenly isolated from the West.
Over the next four hundred years, it will be limited in a hostile Islamic world, with which it has little in common in religion or culture. This, in part, due to this geographical and intellectual confinement that the Eastern Orthodox sound was not heard during the Reformation in 16th century Europe. As a result, this important theological debate often seems strange and distorted to the Orthodox. They never took part in it and thus both the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation were part of their theological framework.
The new Ottoman government that emerged from the ashes of Byzantine civilization was neither primitive nor barbaric. Islam not only recognizes Jesus as a great prophet, but Christians are tolerated as Others in the Book. Thus, the Church is not extinguished and the canonical organization and its hierarchy are significantly disrupted. Administration continues to work. One of the first things Mehmet the Conqueror did was to let the Church choose a new patriarch, Gennadius Scholarius. Hagia Sophia and Parthenon, who have been Christian church for nearly a millennium, are recognized, converted into mosques, but many other churches, both in Constantinople and elsewhere, remain in Christian hands. Moreover, it is surprising that the patriarchal and hierarchical positions are strongly strengthened and their strength increases. They are blessed with civil and ecclesiastical power over all Christians in Ottoman territory. Because Islamic law does not distinguish between nationality and religion, all Christians, regardless of their language or nationality, are regarded as one millet, or nation. Patriarchs, as the highest ranking hierarchy, are then invested with civil and religious authorities and make ethnark, the head of the entire Christian Orthodox population. Practically, this means that all Orthodox Churches in Ottoman territory are under the control of Constantinople. Thus, the authority and boundaries of the patriarchal jurisdiction are enormously enlarged.
However, these rights and privileges (see Dhimmitude), including freedom of worship and religious organization, are often founded in principle but seldom relate to reality. The legal rights of the patriarch and the Church depend, in fact, on the will and mercy of the Sultan and Porte Sublim, while all Christians are seen as little more than second-class citizens. Moreover, Turkish corruption and brutality is not a myth. That "unbeliever" Christians who experience this more than others do not hesitate. Also the pogroms of Christians in these centuries are unknown (see Greek-Turkish relations). Destructive, too, for the Church is the fact that it can not be a witness for Christ. Missionary work among Muslims is dangerous and indeed impossible, whereas conversion to Islam is completely legitimate and permissible. People who convert to Islam who return to Orthodox are executed as apostates. No new church can be built and even the ringing of church bells is forbidden. The education of the clergy and the Christian population ceases altogether or reduced to the most basic element.
Corruption
The Orthodox Church finds itself subject to the Turkish corruption system. The patriarchal throne is often sold to the highest bidder, while a new patriarchal coronation accompanied by large payments to the government. To recover their losses, patriarchs and bishops levy taxes in local parishes and their clergy. The patriarchal throne is also never safe. Some patriarchs between the fifteenth and nineteenth centuries died as natural deaths while in office. Forcible seizure, seclusion, hanging, drowning, and patriarchal poisoning are well documented. But if the position of the patriarch is precarious as well as the hierarchy. Hanging patriarch Gregory V from patriarchal gates at Easter 1821 accompanied by the execution of two metropolitan and twelve bishops.
DevShirmeh
Devshirmeh is a system of gathering young people from Christian lands conquered by Ottoman sultans as a regular form of taxation to build loyal forces (formerly mostly prisoners of war) and an administrative (military) class called "Janissari", or servants Others like Tellak in hamams. The word dev? Irme means "gathering, gathering" in Ottoman Turkish. The boys are sent to Ottoman in this way called ghilmÃÆ'¡n or acemi oglanlar ("beginner boy").
Eastern Orthodox since the 20th century
Russian Orthodox Church in the Russian Empire
The Russian Orthodox Church held a privileged position in the Russian Empire, expressed in motto, Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Populism, from the Russian Empire. At the same time, it was placed under the control of the Tsar by reforming the Church of Peter I in the 18th century. Its governing body is the Most Holy Synod, run by an official (entitled Ober-Procurator) appointed by the Tsar himself.
The Church is involved in russification campaigns, and is accused of involvement in anti-Jewish pogroms. In the case of anti-Semitism and anti-Jewish pogroms, there is no evidence given about the direct participation of the church, and many Russian Orthodox clerics, including senior hierarchy, publicly defended persecuted Jews, at least from the second half of the nineteenth century. century. Also, the Church has no official position on such Judaism.
Churches are allowed to impose a tax on farmers.
The Church, like the Tsarist state, is seen as an enemy of the people by the Bolsheviks and other Russian revolutionaries.
Russian Orthodox Church in USSR
The Russian Orthodox Church collaborated with the White Army in the Russian Civil War (see White movement) after the October Revolution. This may further strengthen the Bolshevik animus against the church.
After the October Revolution of November 7, 1917 (October 25th Calendar) there was a movement within the Soviet Union to unite everyone in the world under Communist rule (see Communist International). These include the Eastern European bloc countries as well as the Balkan State. Because some of these Slavic countries bind their ethnic heritage to their ethnic churches, both the people and their churches where it is targeted by the Soviets. The official stance of Soviet religion is one of "religious freedom or tolerance", although the state establishes atheism as the only scientific truth. Criticism of atheism is strictly prohibited and sometimes leads to imprisonment.
The Soviet Union was the first country to have an ideological goal to abolish religion. Towards that end, the Communist regime seized the church property, mocking religion, harassing believers, and spreading atheism in schools. Acts against certain religions, however, are determined by the interests of the State, and most organized religions have never been banned. Some actions against priests and Orthodox and executions including torture were sent to prison camps, forced labor camps or psychiatric hospitals. The result of this state atheism is to transform the Church into a Church that is persecuted and martyrs. In the first five years after the Bolshevik revolution, 28 bishops and 1,200 priests were executed. This includes the likes of Grand Duchess Elizabeth Fyodorovna who at the moment is a monk. Along with his killing was the Grand Duke Sergei Mikhailovich Romanov; Prince Ioann Konstantinovich, Konstantin Konstantinovich, Igor Konstantinovich and Vladimir Pavlovich Paley; Secretary of the Grand Duke Sergei, Fyodor Remez; and Varvara Yakovleva, a sister of the Elizabethan Grand Duchess monastery. They are herded into the forest, pushed onto the abandoned mineshaft and the grenades are then thrown into the mineshaft. His body was buried in Jerusalem, in the Church of Mary Magdalene.
The main target of anti-religious campaigns in the 1920s and 1930s was the Russian Orthodox Church, which had the largest number of faithful. Almost all the pastors, and many of his followers, were shot or sent to forced labor camps. Theological schools are closed, and church publications are prohibited. In the period between 1927 and 1940, the number of Orthodox Churches in the Russian Republic fell from 29,584 to less than 500. Between 1917 and 1940, 130,000 Orthodox priests were arrested. Of these, 95,000 were executed, executed by firing squads. Father Pavel Florensky was one of the New martyrs in this special period.
After the Nazi German attack on the Soviet Union in 1941, Joseph Stalin revived the Russian Orthodox Church to increase patriotic support for the war effort. In 1957 about 22,000 Russian Orthodox churches have become active. But in 1959 Nikita Khrushchev started his own campaign against the Russian Orthodox Church and forced the closure of some 12,000 churches. In 1985 less than 7,000 churches remained active. Church hierarchy members are imprisoned or forced out, where they are taken by benign priests, many of whom have links to the KGB.
In the Soviet Union, in addition to the methodical closure and destruction of churches, the charity and social work previously undertaken by ecclesiastical authorities was taken over by the state. Like all private properties, the property of the Church is confiscated into general use. Some places of worship that are handed over to the Church are legally viewed as state property that the government permits to use by the church. After the emergence of a university-funded universal education, the Church is not allowed to continue education, teaching activities for children. For adults, only training for church-related work is permitted. Beyond the sermon during the celebration of the divine liturgy can not instruct or evangelize to the believer or his youth. Catechism classes, religious schools, study groups, Sunday schools and religious publications are all illegal and/or prohibited. This persecution continued even after Stalin's death until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. This caused many religious channels to be circulated as illegal or samizdat literature. Since the fall of the Soviet Union, there have been many New martyrs added as Saints from the yoke of atheism.
Diaspora emigration to the West
One of the most striking developments in the modern history of Orthodoxy is the spread of Orthodox Christianity to the West. Emigration from Greece and the Near East in the last hundred years has created considerable Orthodox diaspora in Western Europe, North and South America, and Australia. In addition, the Bolshevik Revolution forced thousands of Russians in exile to the west. As a result, the traditional border of Orthodoxy has been deeply modified. Millions of Orthodox are no longer geographically "east" because they live permanently in newly adopted countries in the West. Nonetheless, they remain Eastern Orthodox in their faith and practice.
See also
Note
Print resources
- GonzÃÆ'¡lez, Justo L. (1985). The Story of Christianity, Vol. 2: Reform to the present day . San Francisco: Harper. ISBN: 0-06-063316-6.
- Hastings, Adrian (1999). History of World Christianity . Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBNÃ, 0-8028-4875-3.
- Latourette, Kenneth Scott (1975). History of Christianity, Volume 2: 1500 to 1975 (paperback). San Francisco: Harper. ISBN: 0-06-064953-4.
- Shelley, Bruce L. (1996). Church History in Plain (2nd ed.). ISBN: 0-8499-3861-9.
External links
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