Journalism refers to the production and distribution of reports on recent events. The word journalism applies to work (professional or not), methods of gathering information and organizing literary styles. Media journalism includes print, television, radio, internet and in the past: newsreel.
The concept of appropriate role for journalism varies across countries. In some countries, news media are controlled by government intervention, and not entirely independent bodies. In another, the news media is independent of the government but the profit motive is tension with the constitutional protection of press freedom. Access to freely available information collected by independent journalistic companies and competing with transparent editorial standards can enable citizens to participate effectively in the political process. In the United States, journalism is protected by the freedom of the press clause in the First Amendment.
The role and status of journalism and mass media has changed over the last two decades, along with advances in digital technology and news publication on the Internet. This has created a shift in the consumption of print media channels, as more and more people consume news through e-readers, smartphones, and other electronic devices. News organizations are challenged to fully monetize their digital wings, and improvise on the context in which they publish news in the print media. Newspapers have seen print revenue sink at a faster pace than growth rates for digital income. Particularly, in the American media landscape, the editorial room has reduced staff and their coverage as traditional media channels, such as television, grappling with a declining audience. For example, between 2007 and 2012, CNN edited the story package to nearly half its original length of time.
The compactness in this scope has been attributed to broad audience attention, as most respondents in the latest study show a change in preference in news consumption. According to the Pew Research Center, circulation for US newspapers has declined sharply in the 21st century. The digital era also brings a new type of journalism where ordinary citizens play a greater role in the news-making process, with the emergence of citizen journalism made possible through the Internet. Using smartphones with video cameras, active citizens are now enabled to record footage of news events and upload them to channels like YouTube, which are often found and used by major news media outlets. Meanwhile, easy access to news from various online sources, such as blogs and other social media, has resulted in readers being able to choose from a wider selection of official and unofficial sources, not just from traditional media organizations.
Video Journalism
Produksi
The journalistic convention differs in every country. In the United States, journalism is produced by media organizations or by individuals. Bloggers are often, but not always, journalists. The Federal Trade Commission requires that bloggers who receive a free promotional gift, then write about a product, must disclose that they receive a free product. This is to eliminate conflicts of interest and protect consumers.
In the US, credible news organizations are incorporated entities; has an editorial board; and has a clear division between the editorial and advertising departments. Credible news organizations, or their employees, belong to one or more professional organizations such as the American Society of News Editor, the Society of Professional Journalists, Investigative Reporters & Editor, or Online News Association. All of these organizations have a code of ethics that members comply with. Many news organizations have their own code of conduct that guides professional journalists' publications. The New York Times code of standards and ethics is considered very strict.
As they write stories, journalists are concerned with the issue of objectivity and bias. Some types of stories are meant to represent the author's own opinion; other types of stories are meant to be more neutral or balanced. In physical newspapers, information is organized into sections and it is easy to see which stories should be opinions and which ones should be neutral. Online, many of these differences are broken. Readers should pay close attention to titles and other design elements to ensure that they understand the intent of the journalist. The opinion piece is generally written by a regular columnist or appears in the section titled "Op-ed." The feature stories, the latest news, and the hard news are generally not pieces of opinion.
According to Robert McChesney, healthy journalism in a democratic country must provide the opinions of those in power and who wants to rule, must produce a variety of opinions and should pay attention to the information needs of all people.
Much of the debate centers on whether journalists are "considered" as "objective" or "neutral". Journalists are people who generate news from and as part of a particular social context. They are guided by professional codes of ethics and do their best to represent all legitimate views.
Maps Journalism
Form
There are different forms of journalism, all with diverse audiences. Journalism is said to serve the role of "fourth estate", acting as a watchdog on government work. One publication (such as a newspaper) contains many forms of journalism, each of which can be presented in different formats. Any part of a newspaper, magazine, or website can serve a different audience.
Some forms include:
- Access journalism - a journalist who censores himself and voluntarily stops talking about issues that might embarrass the host, guest, or politician or a strong businessperson.
- Advocacy journalism - writing to support a particular point of view or influencing an audience's opinion.
- Broadcast journalism - written or spoken journalism for radio or television.
- Citizen journalism - participative journalism.
- Data journalism - the practice of finding stories in numbers, and using numbers to tell stories. Data journalists can use data to support their reporting. They can also report on the use and misuse of data. The US news organization ProPublica is known as the pioneer of data journalism.
- Drone journalism - the use of drones to record journalistic recordings.
- Gonzo Journalism - first championed by Hunter S. Thompson, gonzo journalism is a "very personal reporting style".
- Interactive journalism - a kind of online journalism presented on the web
- Investigating journalism - in-depth reporting revealing social issues. Often leads to major social issues being solved.
- Photojournalism - the practice of telling a true story through pictures
- Censorship journalism - the use of censorship to support journalistic investigations.
- tabloid journalism - a lighthearted and entertaining writing. Considered less legitimate than mainstream journalism.
- Yellow journalism (or sensationalism) - writings that emphasize excessive claims or rumors.
Social Media
The recent emergence of social media has produced arguments to reconsider journalism as a process rather than linking it with a particular news product. From this perspective, journalism is a process that is distributed among many authors and involves journalists as well as social mediation societies.
Social media has drastically changed the nature of journalistic reporting, resulting in so-called citizen journalists. A 2014 study by journalists in the United States found that 40% of participants stated that they rely on social media for information and more than half of these journalists rely on microblogs to gather facts and share their findings. Today, news is often from user-generated content, videos, news, or images posted online by social media users. While 69.2% of journalists interviewed agreed that social media allowed them to be more connected to their audience, 70% disagreed that social media increased credibility.
As a result of this change, the credibility rating for major news channels has reached an all-time low. A 2014 study revealed that only 22% of Americans report "many" or "self-confident" either on television news or in newspapers.
Fake News
"Fake news" is information that is distributed that is intentionally dishonest or produced by an unreliable organization. Fake news easily spreads on social media like Facebook and Twitter as well as fake news sites. It is often published and disseminated for the purpose of deliberately misleading its readers for the cause, organization or individual interests. The most striking example is the proliferation of false news in social media during the 2016 US presidential election. Conspiracy theories, lies, and lies have been circulated under the guise of news reports to benefit certain candidates. For example, there was a case of false reports about Hillary Clinton's email published by a newspaper called The Denver Guardian. Many critics blame Facebook for the proliferation of these materials especially news feed algorithms, identified by Vox as a platform where social media giants run billions of editorial decisions every day. Mark Zuckerberg, CEO of Facebook, has acknowledged the company's role in this issue. In a testimony before a joint Senate Judiciary and Judiciary trial hearing on April 20, 2018, he said:
It is clear now that we are not doing enough to prevent these tools being used for danger as well. It applies to fake news, foreign interference in elections, and hate speech, as well as developers and data privacy.
Readers can determine false news by evaluating whether news has been published by a credible news organization.
History
Johann Carolus Relation aller FÃÆ'¼rnemmen und gedenckwÃÆ'¼rdigen Historien , published in 1605 in Strassburg, is often recognized as the first newspaper. The first successful English-language daily, The Daily Courant, was published from 1702 to 1735. The Reformation of DiÃÆ'¡rio Carioca in the 1950s usually refers to modern births. journalism in Brazil.
Roles
In the 1920s, when modern journalism took shape, writer Walter Lippmann and American philosopher John Dewey debated the role of journalism in democracy. Their different philosophies still characterize the debate about the role of journalism in society and nation-state.
To Lippmann, journalists fulfill the role of mediators, or translators, between the general public and elite policy makers. Lippmann argues that the public can not judge the confusion of increasingly complex modern facts; therefore, it takes an intermediary to filter the news. Journalists act as this intermediary, recording information exchanged among the elites, refining it, and passing it on to public consumption. The public will influence the elite's decision with their votes; meanwhile, the elites will continue to run the business of power. Effectively, Lippmann's philosophy has a public at the bottom of the power chain, inheriting his information from the elite.
Lippmann's elitism had consequences he regretted. As an apostle of historicism and scientism, Lippmann not only considers democratic government as a problematic exercise, but considers all political communities, from any line, as requiring guidance from a transcendent partisans for accurate information and impartial judgment. In "Liberty and the News" (1919) and "Public Opinion" (1921), Lippmann expressed the hope that freedom can be redefined to consider scientific and historical perspectives and that public opinion can be managed by a system of intelligence in and out of government. Thus the freedom of journalists should be dedicated to gathering verifiable facts while commentators such as him will place the news in a broader perspective. Lippmann deplores the influence of powerful newspaper publishers and prefers the judgment of "patient and fearless people". Thus, he not only undermines the opinions of the majority but also the opinions of those who have influence or power as well. In the form of a republican government, representatives are elected by the people and share adherence to the fundamental principles and political institutions of the country. Lippmann's argument is with principles and institutions, since they are products from a pre-scientific and prehistoric point of view and what to him is an unreasonable human rights political philosophy.
But Lippmann turned against what he called the Progressive movement's "collectivism" he pushed with an emphasis on the political foundations and governance of America and finally wrote a work, "The Public Philosophy" (1955), which came very close to returning to the founding principles of America.
Dewey, on the other hand, believes not only that the public is able to understand the issues made or responded to by the elite, but also that it is in the public forum that decisions should be made after discussion and debate. When the problem is actually checked, then the best ideas will bubble to the surface. Dewey believes journalists should do more than deliver information. He believes they should consider the consequences of the policy being enacted. Over time, the idea has been implemented in various levels, and is better known as "community journalism".
The concept of community journalism is at the center of new developments in journalism. In this new paradigm, journalists can involve citizens and experts and elites in proposition and content creation. Despite the assumption of equality, Dewey still celebrates his skills. Dewey believes that knowledge with many people is far superior to an individual's knowledge. Scholars and scholars are accepted within the framework of Dewey, but no hierarchical structure exists in Lippmann's understanding of journalism and society. According to Dewey, conversation, debate, and dialogue lie at the heart of democracy.
While Lippmann's journalistic philosophy may be more acceptable to government leaders, Dewey's approach is a broader description of how many journalists see their role in society, and, in turn, how much society expects journalists to function. America, for example, may criticize some excesses by journalists, but they tend to expect journalists to serve as watchdogs to government, business and actors, allowing people to make informed decisions about time.
Element
Bill Kovach and Tom Rosenstiel proposed some guides for journalists in their book The Elements of Journalism. Because the journalist's first allegiance is to citizens, journalists are obliged to tell the truth and must serve as an independent monitor of strong individuals and institutions in society. The essence of journalism is to provide credible information to citizens through the discipline of verification.
Professional and ethical standards
While the various codes have some differences, most common elements include principles - truth, accuracy, objectivity, impartiality, fairness and public accountability - as they apply to the acquisition of information that is eligible for publication and dissemination to the public.
Some of the journalistic Code of Ethics, particularly European ones, also include concerns with discriminatory references in news based on race, religion, sexual orientation, and physical or mental disability. The Council of Parliament The European Council approved in 1993 Resolution 1003 on Journalism Ethics which recommends journalists to respect the notion of innocence, particularly in sub-judicial cases.
In the United Kingdom, all newspapers are bound by the Code of Practice of the Independent Standards Organization. This includes points like respecting people's privacy and ensuring its accuracy. However, the Media Standards Trust has criticized the PCC, claiming that it needs to be radically changed to secure public confidence in newspapers.
This is in stark contrast to the media climate before the 20th century, where the media market is dominated by smaller newspapers and pamphlets that usually have an overt and often radical agenda, with no preconceived balance or objectivity.
Due to pressure on reporters to report the news immediately and before their competitors, factual errors occur more often than in writing are produced and edited under less time pressure. Thus the typical daily major newspaper issues may contain some article corrections published the day before. Perhaps the most notorious journalistic mistake caused by time pressures is the Dewey Defeats Truman edition of the Chicago Daily Tribune, based on early election results that failed to anticipate the actual results of the 1948 US presidential election.
Failed to uphold the standard
Such codes can, in the real world, be difficult to enforce consistently. Reporting and editing do not occur in a vacuum but always reflect the political context in which journalists, no less than other citizens, operate.
The news organization budget definitely reflects the decision on what news to cover, for what audience, and how deep. When budgets are cut, editors can sacrifice journalists at long distance news bureaus, reduce the number of staff assigned to low-income areas, or remove entire communities from publicity interest zones.
Other publishers, owners and business executives, especially advertising sales executives, may try to use their power over journalists to influence how news is reported and published. For this reason, journalists have traditionally relied on top management to create and maintain a "firewall" between news and other departments within the news organization to prevent undue influence on the news department.
Although some analysts point out the inherent difficulty in maintaining objectivity, and others practically deny that it is possible, others still point to the free press requirement in a democratic society governed by public opinion and republican government under a limited constitution. According to this last view, direct or implicit criticism of government, political parties, corporations, unions, schools and colleges and even churches is inevitable and desirable, and can not be done without clarity about basic political principles. Therefore, objectivity comprises both honest, accurate, and sensible commentary, based on a firm commitment to the principles of equality, freedom and government free from consent.
Code of Ethics
There are more than 242 ethical codes in journalism that vary in different regions of the world. The code of conduct is created through the interaction of various groups of people such as the public and the journalist itself. Most codes of ethics serve as a representation of the economic and political beliefs of the society in which the code is written. Despite the fact that there are various codes of conduct; some of the core elements that exist in all code remain objective, giving truth and being honest.
Journalism does not have a universal code of ethics; individuals are not legally required to follow a set of specific rules such as doctors or lawyers. There is a discussion about the creation of a universal code of ethics in journalism. One suggestion centered on having 3 claims that were credible, justifiable consequences and humanitarian claims. In credibility claims, journalists are expected to provide publicly reliable and credible information that the public is not only expected to believe, but has the right to question the nature of the information and processes that lag behind the provision of that information. The second claim is a justifiable consequence and it is centered on making sure to reduce the hazards associated with certain news. A justifiable consequence is where a journalist uses a neutral language to describe a story that could harm a particular group of people. The third claim is a humanitarian claim which states that scientists write for the global population and therefore must serve everyone globally in their work.
Legal status
Governments have widely varying policies and practices on journalists, who control what they can examine and write, and what publishers can publish. Some governments guarantee freedom of the press; while other countries severely limit what journalists can do or publish.
Journalists in many countries have some features not shared by members of the general public, including better access to public events, crime scene and press conferences, and for extended interviews with public officials, celebrities and others in the public eye.
Journalists who choose to cover conflicts, whether inter-state wars or insurgencies in countries, often surrender the hope of protection by governments, if they do not surrender their right to protection from the government. Journalists who are arrested or detained during the conflict are expected to be treated as civilians and released to their national governments. Many governments around the world are targeting journalists for intimidation, harassment, and violence because of the nature of their work.
Right to protect source privacy
The interaction of journalists with sources sometimes involves confidentiality, the extension of press freedom gives journalists the legal protection to keep the identity of private confidential informers even when requested by the police or prosecutors; holding back their sources may cause journalists to insult the courts, or in prisons.
In the United States, there is no right to protect resources in federal courts. However, federal courts will refuse to force journalists to disclose their sources, unless court-sought information is highly relevant to the case and there is no other way to get it. State courts provide such levels of protection. Journalists who refuse to testify even when ordered to be found in court humiliation and fined or imprisoned. On the side of journalism maintaining the confidentiality of resources, there is also a risk to the credibility of journalists because there is no actual confirmation of whether the information is valid. It is therefore not recommended for journalists to have confidential sources.
See also
Journalism review
- American Journalism Review
- Reviews of Colombian Journalism
- Health News Reviews
- The Ryerson Journalistic Review
References
Note
Source
- Harcup, Tony (2009), Journalism: Principles and Practice , Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, ISBN 978- 1847872500, OCLCÃ,280437077
Further reading
- Kaltenbrunner, Andy and Matthias Karmasin and Daniela Kraus, eds. "Journalistic Report V: Innovation and Transition", Facultas, 2017
- Hurry, Amanda C. ed. World Press Encyclopedia: A Worldwide Survey of Press Systems (2nd ed. 2 vol 2002); 2500 pp; very detailed coverage of every country big and small.
- de Beer Arnold S. and John C. Merrill, eds. Global Journalism: Topical Media Issues and Systems (5th edition, 2008)
- Shoemaker, Pamela J. and Akiba A. Cohen, eds. World News: Content, Practitioners and Public (2nd edition 2005)
- Sloan, W. David and Lisa Mullikin Parcell, eds. (2002). American Journalism: History, Principles, Practice . McFarland. CS1 maint: Multiple names: list of authors (link) CS1 maint: Additional text: author list (link)
- Sterling, Christopher H. (ed.), Encyclopedia of journalism , Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE, 2009, 6 vols.
External links
- Online Journalism Reviews
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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