Russia

src: nationalinterest.org

Russian (Russian: ??????? , tr. Rossiya , IPA: Ã, [r? 's? ij?] ), formally Russian Federation (Russian: ?????????? , tr. Rossiyskaya Federatsiya , IPA: Ã, [r? 's? Ijsk? J? F ?? d ??' rats? j?] ), is a country in Eurasia. At 17,125,200 square kilometers (6,612,100 sq. Million), Russia is the world's largest country by region, covering more than one-eighth of Earth's inhabited land area, and the ninth most populous, with more than 144 million people per December 2017, excluding Crimea. About 77% of the population lives in the western part of the European country. The Russian capital of Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world; Other major cities include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg and Nizhny Novgorod.

Expanding across North Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia covers eleven time zones and incorporates a wide variety of environments and landscapes. From northwest to southeast, Russia shares land borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both with Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia and North Korea. The area is maritime bordered by Japan by the Okhotsk Sea and Alaska state across the Bering Strait.

Eastern Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Established and ruled by the elite of Varangian warriors and their descendants, the medieval state of Rus emerged in the 9th century. In 988 he adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, initiating the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus' was eventually destroyed into a number of smaller states; most of Rus' territory was overrun by Mongol invasions and became a tributary of the nomadic Golden Horde in the 13th century. The Grand Duchy of Moscow gradually reunited the surrounding Russian empires, achieving independence from the Golden Horde. In the 18th century, the nation had greatly developed through conquest, annexation, and exploration to become the Russian Empire, which is the third largest empire in history, extending from Poland in the west to Alaska in the east.

After the Russian Revolution, the Socialist Republican Soviet Russian Federation became the largest and largest constituency of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the world's first constitutional socialist state. The Soviet Union played a decisive role in Allied victory in World War II, and emerged as a superhuman force recognized and competing with the United States during the Cold War. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the world's first man-made satellite and the first human launch in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the world's second largest economy, the world's largest military and the largest pile of weapons of mass destruction. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, twelve independent republics emerged from the Soviet Union: Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and the Baltic states regained independence: Estonia , Latvia, Lithuania; SFSR Russia rearranged itself as a Russian Federation and was recognized as the personality of sustainable law and successor of the Soviet Union. It is organized as a federal semi-presidential republic.

Russia's economy ranks the twelfth largest with nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity by 2015. Russia's enormous mineral and energy resources are the world's largest reserves, making it one of the major oil and gas producers globally. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and has the largest inventory of weapons of mass destruction. Russia is a major force as well as a regional power and has been characterized as a potential superpower. It is a permanent member of the UN Security Council and an active global partner of ASEAN, as well as members of the G20, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), the Council of Europe, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), and the Organization World Trade (WTO), as well as being a leading member of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) and one of the five members of the Eurasian Economic Union (EEU), together with Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan.

Video Russia

Etimologi

The name Russian comes from Rus', a medieval country inhabited mostly by the East Slavs. However, this exact name becomes more prominent in later history, and the country is usually referred to by its inhabitants "??????????" (russkaja zemlja), which can be translated as "Russian Land" or "Land of Rus'". To distinguish this country from other countries derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus' by modern historiography. The name Rus itself comes from early-medieval Rus' people, Swedish merchants and soldiers who moved from across the Baltic Sea and established a Novgorod-based state which later became Kievan Rus.

The ancient Latin version of Rus 'name is Ruthenia, mostly applied in the western and southern regions of Rus' which borders on Catholic Europe. Current country name, ?????? (Rossija), derived from the Greek appointment of Byzantine of Rus', ?????? RossÃÆ'a - spelled ????? ( RosÃÆ'a pronounced [ro'sia] ) in Modern Greek.

The standard way to refer Russian citizens is "Russian" in English and rossiyane (Russian: > ???????? ) in Russian. There are two Russian words that are usually translated into English as "Russian". One is "???????" ( russkiye ), which most often means "ethnic Russians". Others are "????????" ( rossiyane ), meaning "Russian citizen, regardless of ethnicity". Translation into other languages ​​often does not distinguish these two groups.

Maps Russia

History

Initial history

Nomadic pastoralism flourished in the Ponta-Caspian steppes that began at Chalcolithic.

In classical antiquity, Pontic Steppe was known as Scythia. Beginning in the 8th century BC, the traders of Ancient Greece brought their civilization to the trading emporiums in Tanais and Phanagoria. Ancient Greek explorers, especially Pytheas, even as far as modern Kaliningrad, in the Baltic Sea. The Romans settled in the western part of the Caspian Sea, where their empire stretched eastward. In the 3rd to 4th centuries AD, a semi-legendary Goth Olin kingdom existed in Southern Russia until it was occupied by Hun. Between the 3rd and 6th centuries, the Bosporan Kingdom, a Hellenistic government that replaced the Greek colonies, was also surrounded by a nomadic invasion led by warlike tribes, such as Hun and Eurasian Avars. The Turks, the Khazars, ruled the lower Volga river valley between the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea until the 10th century.

The ancestors of modern Russians are the Slavic tribes, whose original house was considered by some experts to be the forest areas in the ruins of Pinsk Marshes. The Eastern Slavs gradually settled in Western Russia in two waves: one moving from Kiev to the current Suzdal and Murom and another from Polotsk towards Novgorod and Rostov. From the seventh century onwards, East Slavs constituted the bulk of the population in Western Russia and assimilated to the natives of Finno-Ugric, including Merya, Muromians, and Meshchera.

Kievan Rus'

The formation of the first Eastern Slavs state in the 9th century coincided with the arrival of Varangians, merchants, soldiers and settlers from the Baltic Sea region. Especially they were Vikings originating from Scandinavia, who wandered along the waterways that stretched from the eastern Baltic to the Black Sea and Caspian Sea. According to Primary Chronicles, a Varangian of the Rus ', named Rurik, was elected ruler of Novgorod in 862. In 882, his successor, Oleg, ventured south and conquered Kiev, which had previously paid tribute to the Khazar, establishing Kievan Rus'. Oleg, Rurik's son, Igor and son Igor, Sviatoslav, subsequently subjugated all local Slavic Eastern tribes to the Kievan government, destroyed Khazar Khaganate and launched several military expeditions to Byzantium and Persia.

In the 10th to 11th centuries, Kievan Rus' became one of the largest and most prosperous countries in Europe. The reign of Vladimir the Great (980-1015) and his son Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054) was the Golden Age of Kiev, which saw the acceptance of Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium and the creation of the first written Slavik East legacy code, .

In the 11th and 12th centuries, persistent attacks by nomadic Turkic tribes, such as Kipchaks and Pecheneg, caused massive migration of Slavic populations to safer and heavily wooded areas in the north, particularly to the area known as Zalesye.

The era of feudalism and decentralization was characterized by a continuing dispute between members of the Rurik Dynasty who ruled Kievan Rus collectively. The dominance of Kiev is reduced, for the benefit of Vladimir-Suzdal in the north-east, the Republic of Novgorod to the northwest and Galicia-Volhynia to the southwest.

Finally Kievan Rus 'was destroyed, with the final blow is the Mongol invasion of 1237-40 which resulted in the destruction of Kiev and the death of about half the population of Rus'. The Mongol elite who attacked, together with the Turks they conquered (Cumans, Kipchaks, Bulgars), known as the Tatars, formed the country of the Golden Horde, which plundered the Russian empires; The Mongols occupied the Confederation of Cuman-Kipchak and Volga Bulgaria (southern and central regions of Russia) for more than two centuries.

Galicia-Volhynia was eventually assimilated by the Polish Empire, while the Mongol-dominated Vladimir-Suzdal and Novgorod Republic, two areas on the outskirts of Kiev, became the basis for the modern state of Russia. Novgorod along with Pskov maintained several degrees of autonomy during the Mongol rule and largely escaped the atrocities that affected other parts of the country. Led by Prince Alexander Nevsky, Novgorodians expelled the invading Sweden in the Battle of Neva in 1240, as well as the German crusaders in the Battle of Ice in 1242, deciding their attempts to colonize the Northern Rus.

Grand Duchy of Moscow

The most powerful state to finally emerge after the destruction of Kievan Rus' is the Grand Duchy of Moscow ("Muscovy" in Western historical record), originally part of Vladimir-Suzdal. While still under the Mongol-Tatar region and in their stealth, Moscow began to affirm its influence in the Middle of Rus 'at the beginning of the 14th century, gradually becoming a major force in the process of unification and expansion of Russia's land Rus' land. Moscow's last rival, the Novgorod Republic, prospered as the center of commerce of the eastern head feathers and port of the Hanseatic League.

Times remain difficult, with frequent Mongol-Tatar attacks. Agriculture suffered from the beginning of the Little Ice Age. As throughout Europe, outbreaks often occur between 1350 and 1490. However, due to lower population density and better hygiene - extensive practice, wet steam baths - the mortality rate due to outbreaks is not as severe as in Western Europe, and the population recovered in 1500.

Led by Prince Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow and assisted by the Russian Orthodox Church, a united army of Russian empires marked the defeat of the Mongol-Tatar in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. Moscow gradually absorbed the surrounding kingdoms, including previous rivals as strong as Tver and Novgorod.

IvanÃ, III ("the Great") finally relinquished the Golden Horde's control and consolidated the entire Central and Northern Rus under Moscow. He was also the first to take the title of "Grand Duke of the Russias". After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Moscow claimed the succession of the legacy of the Eastern Roman Empire. IvanÃ, III married Sophia Palaiologina, nephew of the last Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI, and made his double-headed Byzantine hawk, and finally the Russian emblem.

Tsardom from Russia

In the development of the ideas of the Third Rome, the Grand Duke IvanÃ, IV ("Terrible") was officially crowned the first Tsar of Russia in 1547. The Tsar the new law (Sudebnik 1550), established the first Russian feudal representative body (Zemsky Sobor) and introduced local self-management to rural areas.

During his long reign, Ivan the Terrible nearly doubled the already large Russian territory by annexing all three of the Tatars (part of the destroyed Golden Horde): Kazan and Astrakhan along the Volga River, and Siberian Khanate in southwestern Siberia. Thus, by the end of the 16th century Russia was transformed into a multiethnic, multiderminational and transcontinental country.

However, Tsardom was weakened by a long and unsuccessful Livonian War against the Polish, Lithuanian and Swedish coalitions for access to the Baltic coast and maritime trade. At the same time, the Tatars of the Crimean Khanate, the only remaining successor of the Golden Horde, continued to invade southern Russia. In an attempt to restore the khanat of the Volga, the Crimeans and their Ottoman allies invaded central Russia and were even able to burn a portion of Moscow in 1571. Yet the following year the great invading armies were defeated all-out by the Russians in the Battle of Molodies, forever eliminating the threat of Ottoman-Crimean expansion into Russia. The slave raids of Evil, however, did not stop until the late seventeenth century although the construction of new lines of defense throughout Southern Russia, such as the Abatis Outline, constantly narrowed down the areas accessible to the attacks.

The death of Ivan's children marked the end of the ancient Rurik Dynasty in 1598, and in combination with the 1601-03 famine led to civil wars, pretending rules, and foreign intervention during Problem Time in the early 17th century. The Commonwealth of Poland-Lithuania occupies parts of Russia, including Moscow. In 1612, Poland was forced to retreat by the Russian volunteer corps, led by two national heroes, Kuzma Minin merchants and Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. The Romanov Dynasty approved the throne in 1613 by Zemsky Sobor's decision, and the country began a gradual recovery from the crisis.

Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the Cossack era. Cossacks are soldiers who are organized into military communities, resembling pirates and pioneers of the New World. In 1648, Ukrainian farmers joined the Zaporozhian Cossack in a revolt against Poland-Lithuania during the Khmelnytsky Uprising in reaction to the social and religious persecution they suffered under the Polish government. In 1654, Ukrainian leader, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, offered to place Ukraine under the protection of the Russian Tsar, Alekseyà © receipt, I. Aleksey over this offer leads to another Russian-Polish War. Finally, Ukraine split along the Dnieper River, leaving the western part, right-bank of Ukraine, under the rule of Poland and the eastern part (Left-bank of Ukraine and Kiev) under Russian rule. Then, in 1670-71, Don Cossack led by Stenka Razin embarked on a major rebellion in the Volga Region, but the Tsar's forces defeated the rebels.

In the east, exploration and rapid Russian occupation in large areas of Siberia was largely led by the Cossacks who hunted valuable feathers and ivory. Russian explorers pushed east especially along the Siberian River Route, and by the mid-17th century there were Russian settlements in Eastern Siberia, on the Chukchi Peninsula, along the Amur River, and on the Pacific coast. In 1648, the Bering Strait between Asia and North America was adopted for the first time by Fedot Popov and Semyon Dezhnyov.

Russian Empire

Under Peter the Great, Russia was proclaimed the Empire in 1721 and recognized as a world power. Decision from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated Sweden in the Great North War, forcing him to surrender West Karelia and Ingria (two regions lost by Russia at Time of Troubles), as well as Estland and Livland, securing Russian access to the sea and maritime trade. In the Baltic Sea, Peter founded a new capital called Saint Petersburg, which became known as Russia's "window to Europe". The Reformation of Peter the Great brought Western European cultural influences to Russia.

The reign of Peter, I, Elizabeth's daughter in 1741-1962, saw Russian participation in the Seven Years War (1756-63). During this conflict, Russia annexed East Prussia for a while and even seized Berlin. However, after Elisabeth's death, all these conquests were returned to the Prussian Kingdom by pro-Prussian Peter III of Russia.

CatherineÃ, II ("the Great"), who reigned from 1762-96, led the Russian Enlightenment Era. He expanded Russian political control over the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and incorporated most of his territory into Russia during the Polish Partition, pushing the Russian border westward to Central Europe. In the south, after the successful Russian-Turkish War against Ottoman Turks, Catherine advanced to the Russian border into the Black Sea, defeating the Crimean Empire. As a result of victory over Qajar Iran through the Russian-Persian War, in the first half of the 19th century Russia also made significant territorial gains in Transcaucasia and the North Caucasus, forcing the first to irrevocably surrender what is now Georgia, Dagestan, Azerbaijan and Armenia to Russia. This continued with Alexander (I) 1801-25) seized Finland from the undermined Swedish empire in 1809 and Bessarabia from the Ottoman Empire in 1812. At the same time, Russia invaded Alaska and even established settlements in California, such as Fort Ross.

In 1803-1806, the first Russian tour was made, followed by another famous exploration of Russian sea exploration. In 1820, the Russian expedition discovered the Antarctic continent.

In an alliance with various European countries, Russia fought against Napoleonic France. The French invasion of Russia at the height of Napoleon's powers in 1812 reached Moscow, but ultimately failed miserably because the violent opposition in combination with the cold winter of Russia led to a devastating defeat of the invaders, in which over 95% of the entire Grande Europe Fleet was killed. Led by Mikhail Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly, Russian troops ousted Napoleon from the country and passed Europe in the Sixth Coalition war, eventually entering Paris. AlexanderÃ, leads the Russian delegation at the Vienna Congress which defines the post-Napoleonic European map.

The Napoleonic Wars officers brought the ideas of liberalism back to Russia with them and sought to limit the tsar's rule during the unsuccessful rebellion in 1825. By the end of the conservative rule of Nicolas I (1825-55), the peak period of Russian Power and influence in Europe was disrupted by defeat in the Crimean War. Between 1847 and 1851, about one million people died of Asian cholera.

Successor Nicholas Alexander II (1855-181) enacted significant changes in the country, including the emancipation reform of 1861. The great reforms spurred industrialization and modernized the Russian army, which had liberated Bulgaria from Ottoman rule in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78.

The late nineteenth century saw the emergence of various socialist movements in Russia. Alexander II was assassinated in 1881 by revolutionary terrorists, and his son Alexander III (1881-94) was less liberal but more peaceful. The last Russian Emperor, Nicholas II (1894-1917), was unable to prevent the events of the Russian Revolution of 1905, sparked by the failed Russian-Japanese War and a demonstration incident known as Bloody Sunday. The rebellion was postponed, but the government was forced to recognize major reforms (Russian Constitution of 1906), including giving freedom of speech and assembly, legalization of political parties, and the establishment of an elected legislative body, the Duma of the Russian Empire. Agrarian reform Stolypin caused massive migration and farming into Siberia. More than four million settlers arrived in the area between 1906 and 1914.

February and the Russian Revolution

In 1914, Russia entered World War I in response to the Austria-Hungary war declaration against Serbian, Serbian allies, and fought on many fronts while isolated from its Triple Entente allies. In 1916, Brusilov's Attack of the Russian Army almost completely destroyed the Austrian-Hungarian military. However, the existing public distrust of the regime is deepened by rising costs of war, high casualties, and rumors of corruption and treachery. All of this formed the climate for the Russian Revolution of 1917, which was carried out in two major acts.

The February Revolution forced Nicholas II to abdicate; he and his family were imprisoned and then executed in Yekaterinburg during the Russian Civil War. The monarchy was replaced by a shaky coalition of political parties that declared themselves the Provisional Government. On September 1 (14), 1917, upon the decision of the Provisional Government, the Republic of Russia was proclaimed. On January 6 (19), 1918, the Russian Constituent Assembly declared Russia a democratic federal republic (thereby ratifying the Provisional Government decision). The next day the Constituent Assembly was dissolved by the Central Executive Committee of Russia.

Soviet Russia and civil war

An alternative socialist standpoint is beside him, the Soviet Petrograd, which holds power through the democratically elected councils of workers and peasants, called Soviet . The new rules of authority only exacerbate the crisis in the country, rather than solve them. Finally, the October Revolution, led by Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Provisional Government and granted full Soviet power to the creation of the world's first socialist state.

After the October Revolution, civil war broke out between the anti-Communist White movement and the new Soviet regime with its Red Army. Bolshevist Russia lost the territory of Ukraine, Poland, the Baltic and Finland by signing the Brest-Litovsk Treaty which concluded hostilities with the World War I Central Block. The Allied Forces launched a failed military intervention in support of anti-Communist forces. Meanwhile both Bolshevik and White movements carry out deportation and execution campaigns against each other, known respectively as the Red Terror and the White Terror. At the end of the civil war, the economy and infrastructure of Russia suffered heavy damage. Millions became White ÃÆ' Â © migrÃÆ'Â © s, and the 1921 Povolzhye famine claimed up to 5 million.

USSR

The Socialist Republic of the Soviet Federation of Russia (called the Soviet Republican Socialist Federation of Russia at the time), together with the Soviet Socialist Republic, Byelorussia and Transcaucasia, formed the Union of Soviet Socialist (USSR), or Soviet Union, December 1922. Of the 15 republics that will form the Soviet Union, the largest in size and more than half of the total population of the Soviet Union is the Russian SFSR, which dominated the union for 69 years of history.

Following Lenin's death in 1924, a troika was assigned to govern the Soviet Union. However, Joseph Stalin, the elected General Secretary of the Communist Party, succeeded in suppressing all opposition groups within the party and consolidating power in his hands. Leon Trotsky, a major proponent of the world revolution, was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929, and Stalin's idea of ​​Socialism in One Country became the main route. The ongoing internal struggle within the Bolshevik party culminated in the Great Purge, the period of mass suppression in 1937-1938, in which hundreds of thousands of people were executed, including members of the original party and military leaders accused of coups..

Under the leadership of Stalin, the government launched a planned economy, industrialized in most of the countryside, and collectivized its agriculture. During this period of rapid economic and social change, millions of people were sent to forced labor camps, including many political prisoners because of their opposition to Stalin's rule; millions of people were deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union. The coordination of the country's agricultural transition, combined with harsh state policies and drought, led to the Soviet famine of 1932-1933. The Soviet Union, albeit at a great price, was transformed from a largely agrarian economy to a major industrial power in a short span of time.

Under the doctrine of state atheism in the Soviet Union, there was a "government sponsored program for forced conversion to atheism" perpetrated by the Communists. The communist regime pursues religion based on the interests of the State, and while most organized religions have never been banned, religious properties are confiscated, believers are harassed, and religion is ridiculed when atheism is disseminated in schools. In 1925, the government established the Militant Atheist League to intensify the persecution. Thus, although the personal expression of religious beliefs is not explicitly prohibited, a strong sense of social stigma is imposed upon them by formal structures and mass media and is generally considered unacceptable to certain members of the profession (teachers, state bureaucrats, soldiers) to be religious open. As for the Russian Orthodox Church, Soviet authorities seek to control it and, in times of national crisis, to exploit it for the purposes of the regime itself; but their primary goal is to eliminate them. During the first five years of Soviet rule, the Bolsheviks executed 28 Russian Orthodox bishops and more than 1,200 Russian Orthodox priests. Many others were imprisoned or exiled. Believers are harassed and persecuted. Most seminaries are closed, and the publication of most religious material is prohibited. In 1941 only 500 churches remained open from about 54,000 that existed before World War I.

The British and French Peace Policy against Adolf Hitler's annexation of Austria and Czechoslovakia did not stem the rise of German Nazi power. Around the same time, the Third Reich allied with the Japanese Empire, Soviet rivals in the Far East and open enemies of the Soviet Union in the Soviet-Japanese Border War of 1938-1939.

In August 1939, the Soviet government decided to improve relations with Germany by concluding the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, promising non-aggression between the two countries and dividing Eastern Europe into the sphere of influence respectively. While Hitler conquered Poland and France and other countries acting on one front at the start of World War II, the Soviet Union was able to build its military and occupy Western Ukraine, the Hertza and Bukovina regions of the North as a result of the Soviet invasion of Poland, the Winter War, the occupation of the country - the Baltic States and the Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and North Bukovina.

On June 22, 1941, Nazi Germany violated a non-aggression treaty and invaded the Soviet Union with the largest and most powerful invasion force in human history, opening the largest theater of World War II. Although the German army had considerable initial success, their attacks were halted in the Battle of Moscow. Furthermore, Germany dealt with the first major defeat at the Battle of Stalingrad in the winter of 1942-43, and then in the Battle of Kursk in the summer of 1943. Another German failure was the Leningrad siege, where the city was completely blockaded on land between 1941 and 1944 by German forces and Finland, and suffered from hunger and more than a million deaths, but never gave up. Under the rule of Stalin and the leadership of commanders such as Georgy Zhukov and Konstantin Rokossovsky, Soviet forces took Eastern Europe in 1944-45 and captured Berlin in May 1945. In August 1945, the Soviet Army overthrew Japan from Manchukuo and North Korea, contributing to the victory allies of Japan.

The period 1941-45 World War II was known in Russia as the "Great Patriotic War". The Soviet Union along with the United States, Britain and China were regarded as the Four Great Allied forces in World War II and later became the Four Police who were the foundation of the United Nations Security Council. During this war, which included many of the deadliest combat operations in human history, Soviet military and civilian deaths respectively were 10.6 million and 15.9 million, accounting for about a third of all victims of World War II. The full demographic loss for Soviet society is even greater. Soviet economy and infrastructure suffered a massive destruction that caused the Soviet famine in 1946-47 but the Soviet Union emerged as a recognized super-military force on the continent.

After the war, Eastern and Central Europe included East Germany and parts of Austria occupied by the Red Army according to the Potsdam Conference. The dependent socialist government is installed in the East Block satellite countries. Being the second nuclear weapon force in the world, the Soviet Union formed an alliance of Warsaw Pact and entered the struggle for global domination, known as the Cold War, with the United States and NATO. The Soviet Union supported revolutionary movements around the world, including the newly formed People's Republic of Korea, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and, later, the Cuban Republic. A large number of Soviet resources are allocated to help other socialist countries.

After Stalin's death and a brief period of collective rule, new leader Nikita Khrushchev denounced Stalin's personality cult and launched a policy of de-Stalinization. The penal system is reformed and many prisoners are released and rehabilitated (many of them posthumously). The general ease of repressive policy became known as Khrushchev Thaw. At the same time, tensions with the United States increased when the two rivals quarreled over the deployment of US Jupiter missiles in Turkey and Soviet missiles in Cuba.

In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1 , thus starting Space Age. Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first man to orbit the Earth, on a manned spacecraft VostokÃ, 1 on April 12, 1961.

After the exclusion of Khrushchev in 1964, another period of collective rule took place, until Leonid Brezhnev became leader. The 1970s and early 1980s were defined later as the Age of Stagnation, the period when economic growth slowed and social policy became static. The 1965 Kosygin reform was aimed at the partial decentralization of the Soviet economy and shifted the emphasis from heavy industry and weapons to light industry and consumer goods but was paralyzed by conservative Communist leadership.

In 1979, after the Communist-led revolution in Afghanistan, Soviet troops entered the country. The occupation drained economic and dragged resources without achieving meaningful political results. In the end, the Soviet Army was withdrawn from Afghanistan in 1989 because of international opposition, persistent anti-Soviet guerrilla warfare, and lack of support by Soviet citizens.

From 1985 onwards, the last Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, who sought to impose liberal reforms within the Soviet system, introduced a policy of openness and perestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to end period of economic stagnation and to democratize the government. This, however, led to the emergence of strong nationalist and separatist movements. Before 1991, the Soviet economy was the second largest in the world, but during its last years it was plagued by a shortage of goods in grocery stores, huge budget deficits, and explosive growth in the money supply that caused inflation.

In 1991, economic and political turmoil began to boil, as the Baltic republic chose to break away from the Soviet Union. On March 17, a referendum was held, in which most of the participating voters voted in favor of the change of the Soviet Union into a new federation. In August 1991, attempted coup by members of the Gorbachev government, directed against Gorbachev and aimed at preserving the Soviet Union, led to the end of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. On December 25, 1991, the Soviet Union was dissolved into 15 post-Soviet countries.

Russian Federation

In June 1991, Boris Yeltsin became the first President directly elected in Russian history when he was elected President of the Socialist Republican Federation of Soviet Russia, which became independent Russian Federation in December of that year. During and after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, broad reforms including privatization and market and trade liberalization were carried out, including radical changes along the lines of "shock therapy" as recommended by the United States and International Monetary Fund. All of this resulted in a major economic crisis, marked by a 50% decline in GDP and industrial output between 1990 and 1995.

Massive privatization shifts corporate control from state agencies to individuals with internal connections within government. Many of the rich who have recently moved billions in cash and assets abroad in large capital aviation. Economic depression leads to the collapse of social services; the birth rate dropped dramatically while the death rate skyrocketed. Millions fell into poverty, from the 1.5% level at the end of the Soviet era to 39-49% by mid-1993. The 1990s saw extreme corruption and lawlessness, the emergence of criminal gangs and violent crimes.

The 1990s were seized by armed conflict in the North Caucasus, both local ethnic battles and separatist Islamist insurgency. Since Chechen separatists declared independence in the early 1990s, intermittent guerrilla warfare has occurred between Russian rebel and military groups. The terrorist attacks on civilians by separatists, especially the theater crisis in Moscow and the siege of Beslan school, caused hundreds of deaths and attracted worldwide attention.

Russia took responsibility for settling the foreign debt of the Soviet Union, even though its population accounted for only half of the population of the Soviet Union at the time of its dissolution. The high budget deficit caused Russia's financial crisis in 1998 and resulted in a further decline in GDP.

On December 31, 1999, President Yeltsin suddenly resigned, handing the post to the newly appointed Prime Minister, Vladimir Putin, who later won the 2000 presidential election. Putin suppressed the Chechen rebellion despite sporadic violence still occurring throughout the North Caucasus. High oil prices and weak initial currencies followed by an increase in domestic demand, consumption and investment have helped the economy grow for nine consecutive years, improving living standards and increasing Russian influence on the world stage. However, since the world economic crisis of 2008 and the subsequent decline in oil prices, Russia's economy has been stagnant and poverty has begun to rise. While many of the reforms made during Putin's presidency are generally criticized by Western nations as undemocratic, Putin's leadership of the return of order, stability, and progress has made him marvel at admiration in Russia.

On March 2, 2008, Dmitry Medvedev was elected President of Russia while Putin became Prime Minister. Putin returned to the presidency after the 2012 presidential election, and Medvedev was named Prime Minister.

In 2014, after President Viktor Yanukovych from Ukraine fled as a result of the revolution, Putin requested and received authorization from the Russian Parliament to deploy Russian troops to Ukraine. After the Crimean referendum in which the separation was favored by most voters, the Russian leadership announced the Crimean accession to the Russian Federation, although this and the referendum that preceded it were not internationally accepted. On 27 March the UN General Assembly voted in favor of a non-binding resolution against the annexation of Crimean Russia with a vote of 100 member states in favor, 11 against and 58 abstentions.

In September 2015, Russia initiated military intervention in the Syrian Civil War, which consisted of air strikes against Islamic militant groups, the Front al-Nusra (al-Qaeda in the Levant), and the Army of Conquest.

src: cdn.vox-cdn.com

Politics

Government

According to the Russian Constitution, the state is a federal and semi-presidential republic, where the President is the head of state and the Prime Minister is the head of government. The Russian Federation is essentially structured as a multi-party representation democracy, with the federal government composed of three branches:

• Legislature: Federal Federal bicameral assembly, consisting of 450 members of the State Duma and 170 members of the Federation Council, adopting federal law, declaring war, approving treaties, possessing wallet powers and impeachment powers of the President.
• The executive: The President is the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces, may veto the legislative bill before it becomes law, and appoint the Russian Government (Cabinet) and other officials, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies.
• The Judiciary: The Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court and the lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the Federation Council on the recommendation of the President, interpret the law and may invalidate laws they deem unconstitutional.

The President was elected by popular vote for a six-year term (eligible for a second term, but not for a third consecutive term). Government ministries consist of Prime Ministers and their representatives, ministers, and other elected individuals; all appointed by the President on the recommendation of the Prime Minister (whereas the final appointment requires the approval of the State Duma). Leads political parties in Russia including United Russia, Communist Party, Liberal Democratic Party, and A Just Russia. In 2013, Russia ranked 122 out of 167 countries in the Democracy Index, compiled by The Economist Intelligence Unit, while the World Justice Project, in 2014, ranked Russia 80th out of 99 countries surveyed in the rule of law.

Foreign relations

The Russian Federation is recognized in international law as a substitute of the Soviet Union. Russia continues to implement the international commitments of the Soviet Union, and has taken the Soviet Union's permanent position in the UN Security Council, membership in other international organizations, rights and obligations under international treaties, as well as property and debt. Russia has a diverse foreign policy. In 2009, he maintained diplomatic relations with 191 countries and had 144 embassies. Foreign policy is determined by the President and implemented by the Russian Foreign Ministry.

As a successor to previous superpowers, Russia's geopolitical status is often debated, especially in relation to the unipolar and multipolar views of the global political system. Although Russia is generally accepted as a major force, in recent years it has been characterized by a number of world leaders, scholars, commentators and politicians as potential current superpowers.

Russia is one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council. The country is participating in the Quartet in the Middle East and the Six-party talks with North Korea. Russia is a member of the G8 industrialized nations, the Council of Europe, the OSCE, and the APEC. Russia usually takes a leading role in regional organizations such as CIS, EurAsEC, CSTO, and SCO. Russia became the 39th member of the Council of Europe in 1996. In 1998, Russia ratified the European Convention on Human Rights. The legal basis for EU relations with Russia is the Partnership and Cooperation Agreement, which came into force in 1997. This agreement reminds the parties to respect democracy and human rights, political and economic freedoms and a commitment to international peace and security. In May 2003, the EU and Russia agreed to strengthen their cooperation on the basis of shared values ​​and common interests. Former President Vladimir Putin has advocated strategic partnerships with close integration in various dimensions including the formation of the EU-Russia Joint Space. Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia has developed a friendlier relationship with the United States and NATO. The NATO-Russia Council was established in 2002 to enable the United States, Russia, and 27 allies within NATO to work together as equal partners to pursue opportunities for collective collaboration.

Russia maintains strong and positive relationships with other BRIC countries. India is the largest customer of Russian military equipment and both countries share defense and extensive strategic relationships. In recent years, the country has strengthened bilateral relations especially with the People's Republic of China by signing the Treaty of Friendship and building Trans-Siberian gas pipelines and pipelines from Siberia to China.

An important aspect of Russia's relations with the West is its critique of Russia's political system and human rights management (including LGBT rights, media freedom and reports of murdered journalists) by Western governments, mass media and democracy inspectors and leading human rights. In particular, organizations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch consider Russia not to have sufficient democratic attributes and only allow some political rights and civil liberties to its citizens. Freedom House, an international organization funded by the United States, places Russia as "not free", citing "carefully designed elections" and "no" debates. The Russian authorities rejected this claim and especially criticized Freedom House. The Russian Foreign Ministry has called the prefabricated 2006 "Freedom in the World" report, which states that human rights issues have turned into political weapons especially by the United States. The ministry also claims that organizations such as Freedom House and Human Rights Watch use the same voluntary extrapolation scheme against "separate facts which of course can be found in any country" to "dominant tendencies".

Military

The Russian military is divided into the Army, Navy, and Air Force. There are also three independent service arms: the Strategic Missile Force, the Aerospace Defense Force, and the Airborne Force. By 2017, the military comprises more than 1 million active duty personnel, the fifth largest in the world. In addition, there are more than 2.5 million reserve troops, with a total reserve force of perhaps 20 million. It is compulsory for all male citizens aged 18-27 to compulsory military service for a year in charge of the Armed Forces.

Russia has the largest inventory of nuclear weapons in the world, the second largest ballistic missile submarine, and the only modern strategic bomber forces outside the United States. The strength of Russian tanks is the largest in the world, while the navy and air force are the largest.

The country has a large and wholly indigenous arms industry, producing most of its own military equipment with only a few types of imported weapons. It has been one of the largest weapon suppliers in the world since 2001, accounting for 30% of worldwide weapons sales and exporting weapons to around 80 countries. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, SIPRI, found that Russia was the second largest arms exporter in 2010-14, increasing their exports by 37 percent from the 2005-2009 period. In 2010-14, Russia sent weapons to 56 countries and rebelled in eastern Ukraine.

The official military budget of the Russian government 2014 is about 2.49 trillion rubles (about US $ 69.3 billion), the third largest in the world behind the US and China. The official budget will increase to 3.03 trillion rubles (about US $ 83.7 billion) in 2015 and 3.36 trillion rubles (about US $ 93.9 billion) in 2016. However, unofficial estimates put the budget much higher , for example the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) Military Expenditure Database 2013 estimates Russian military spending in 2012 of US $ 90,749 billion. This estimate represents an increase of more than US $ 18 billion in SIPRI's estimate of Russia's military budget for 2011 (US $ 71.9 billion). In 2014, Russia's military budget is higher than any other European country.

Political sharing

Federal Subject

According to the Constitution, the country consists of eighty-five federal subjects, including the disputed Crimean Republic and the federal city of Sevastopol. In 1993, when the Constitution was adopted, there were eighty-nine federal subjects listed, but then some of them were combined. These subjects have the same representation - two delegations each - on the Federation Board. However, they differ in the degree of autonomy they enjoy.

• 46 oblasts (provinces): the most common types of federal subjects, with locally elected governors and legislatures.
• 22 republics: nominally autonomous; each assigned to draft its own constitution, head of a directly elected republic or similar post, and parliament. Republicans are allowed to make their own official language with Russia but are represented by the federal government in international affairs. The Republic is meant to be home to certain ethnic minorities.
• 9 krais (region): basically the same as oblast. The setting of "territory" is historical, originally given to the border area and then also to the administrative division consisting of autonomous okrug or autonomous oblast.
4 autonomous okrugs (autonomous districts): early autonomous entities in oblast and krais were made for ethnic minorities, their status elevated to federal subjects in the 1990s. With the exception of the Autonomous Autonomous Chukotka, all autonomous okrugs are still administratively subject to the sheets or oblasts in which they belong.
• 1 autonomous oblast: historically, the autonomous oblast is an administrative unit subject to krais. In 1990, all of them except the Jewish AO were elevated to a republic.
• 3 federal cities (Moscow, Saint Petersburg, and Sevastopol): large cities that function as separate areas.

federal district

The federal subject is grouped into eight federal districts, each managed by an envoy appointed by the President of Russia. Unlike federal subjects, federal districts are not subnational government levels, but are federal government administrative levels. The federal district envoy serves as a link between federal and federal subjects and is primarily responsible for overseeing federal subject compliance with federal law.

src: www.nationsonline.org

Geography

Russia is the largest country in the world; the total area is 17,075,200 square kilometers (6,592,800 sq mi). It lies between latitude 41 Â ° and 82 Â ° N, and longitude 19 Â ° E and 169 Â ° W.

Russian territorial expansion was achieved largely at the end of the sixteenth century under the Cossack Yermak Timofeyevich during the reign of Ivan the Terrible, as rival city states in western Russia united to form a single state. Yermak mobilized troops and pushed east where he conquered almost all the land that once belonged to the Mongols, defeating their ruler, Khan Kuchum.

Russia has an extensive natural resource base, including major deposits of wood, petroleum, natural gas, coal, ores and other mineral resources.

Topography

The two most distinct points in Russia are about 8,000 km (4,971Ã, mi) apart along geodesy lines. These points are: 60 km (37 miles) Vistula Crosses the border with Poland that separates the Gda Bay from the Vistula Lagoon and the southeastern tip of the Kuril Islands. The most distant points separated in longitude are 6,600 km (4,101 mi) apart along geodesic lines. These points are: in the west, the same spit on the border with Poland, and to the east, the Great Diomede Island. The Russian Federation spans 11 time zones.

Much of Russia is comprised of vast expanses of plains mostly heading south and heavily forested to the north, with tundra along the north coast. Russia has 10% of the world's fertile land. The range of mountains is found along the southern border, such as the Caucasus (containing Mount Elbrus, which at 5,642 m (18,510 ft) is the highest point in Russia and Europe) and the Altai (containing Belukha Mountain, which at 4,506 Ã, m (14,783, ft) is the highest point of Siberia outside the Russian Far East); and in the eastern part, such as the Verkhoyansk Mountains or the volcano on the Kamchatka Peninsula (containing Klyuchevskaya Sopka, which at 4,750 m (15,584 ft) is the highest active volcano in Eurasia as well as the highest point in Asia Russia). The Ural Mountains, rich in mineral resources, form a north-south range that divides Europe and Asia.

Russia has an extensive coastline of more than 37,000 km (22,991 mi) along the Arctic and Pacific Ocean, along the Baltic Sea, the Azov Sea, the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. The Barents Sea, the White Sea, the Kara Sea, the Laptev Sea, the Eastern Siberian Sea, the Chukchi Sea, the Bering Sea, the Okhotsk Sea, and the Sea of ​​Japan connect with Russia through the Arctic and Pacific. Russia's major islands and islands include Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land, Severnaya Zemlya, New Siberian Islands, Wrangel Island, Kuril Islands, and Sakhalin. The Diomede Islands (controlled by Russia, others by the United States) are only 3 km (1.9 miles) away, and Kunashir Island is about 20 km (12.4 mi) from Hokkaido, Japan.

Russia has thousands of rivers and inland waters, providing it with one of the largest surface water sources in the world. The lake contains about a quarter of the world's fresh liquid water. The largest and best known freshwater waters of Russia are Lake Baikal, the deepest, purest, oldest and most extensive freshwater lake in the world. Baikal itself contains more than one fifth of the world's fresh surface water. Other large lakes include Ladoga and Onega, two of Europe's largest lakes. Russia is second only to Brazil in the total volume of renewable water resources. Of the 100,000 rivers in the country, the Volga is the most famous, not only because it is the longest river in Europe, but also because of its main role in Russian history. The Siberian River of Ob, Yenisey, Lena and Amur is one of the longest rivers in the world.

Climate

The enormous size of Russia and the remoteness of many regions of the ocean result in the dominance of humid continental climate, which is prevalent in all parts of the country except tundra and extreme southeast. The mountains in the south block the flow of warm air masses from the Indian Ocean, while the western and northern plains make the country open to the influence of the Arctic and Atlantic.

Most of Northern Europe Russia and Siberia have a subarctic climate, with very severe winters in the inner regions of northeastern Siberia (mostly Sakha Republic, where the Cold North Pole is located with a record of low temperatures of -71.2 ° C or -96, 2 Â ° F), and a more moderate winter elsewhere. Both the strip of land along the coast of the Arctic Ocean and the Russian Arctic archipelago have a polar climate.

The Krasnodar Krai coastal part of the Black Sea, especially in Sochi, has a humid subtropical climate with cool, wet winters. In many areas of eastern Siberia and the Far East, winter is dryer than summer; other parts of the country experience even more even rainfall throughout the season. Winter rainfall in most countries usually falls like snow. Areas along the Lower Volga Sea and Caspian Sea, as well as some southern Siberian regions, have a semi-arid climate.

In many areas, there are only two distinct seasons - winter and summer - as spring and fall are usually short periods of change between very low and very high temperatures. The coldest month is January (February at shoreline); hottest is usually July. The temperature range was very nice. In winter, the temperature becomes colder from south to north and from west to east. Summer can be very hot, even in Siberia. The continental interior is the driest area.

Biodiversity

From the north to the south, the Eastern European Plains, also known as the Russian Plains, are displayed sequentially on the Arctic tundra, needle tree forest (taiga), mixed forest and wide leaves, grasslands (meadow), and semi-desert (Caspian Sea fringing ), as vegetation changes reflect changes in climate. Siberia supports similar sequences but most are taiga. Russia has the largest forest reserves in the world, known as the "European lung", second only to the Amazon Rainforest in the amount of carbon dioxide it absorbs.

There are 266 species of mammals and 780 species of birds in Russia. A total of 415 animal species have been included in the Russian Federation Red Data Book in 1997 and are now protected. There are 28 UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Russia, 40 UNESCO biosphere reserves, 41 national parks and 101 nature reserves.

src: nationalinterest.org

Economy

Russia has a mixed economy of middle to upper with huge natural resources, especially oil and natural gas. It has the 12th largest economy in the world with nominal GDP and the 6th largest with purchasing power parity (PPP). Since the turn of the 21st century, higher domestic consumption and greater political stability have spurred economic growth in Russia. The country ended 2008 with its ninth year of growth, but growth has slowed with falling oil and gas prices. Real GDP per capita, PPP (international today) is 19,840 in 2010. Growth is mainly driven by services and non-tradable goods for the domestic market, compared with oil or mineral extraction and exports. The average nominal salary in Russia is $ 967 per month in early 2013, up from $ 80 in 2000. In May 2016 the nominal average monthly wage fell below $ 450 per month, and taxes on individual earnings were paid at the rate 13% in most revenue. Approximately 19.2 million Russians live below the national poverty line by 2016, rising significantly from 16.1 million in 2015. Unemployment in Russia is 5.4% in 2014, down from about 12.4% in the year 1999. Officially, about 20-25% of the population of Russia is categorized as the middle class; But some economists and sociologists think this figure is increasing and the real fraction is around 7%. After the United States, the European Union and other countries impose economic sanctions after the Crimean annexation and the fall in oil prices, the proportion of the middle class can decline dramatically.

Oil, natural gas, metals and wood account for over 80% of Russian exports abroad. Since 2003, natural resource exports have begun to decline in economic interests as the internal market strengthened significantly. In 2012 the oil and gas sector accounted for 16% of GDP, 52% of federal budget revenues and over 80% of total exports. Oil export revenues enabled Russia to increase its foreign exchange reserves from $ 12 billion in 1999 to $ 597.3 billion on August 1, 2008. In April 2017, foreign exchange reserves in Russia fell to 332 billion dollars. The macroeconomic policy under the Minister of Finance Alexei Kudrin is wise and healthy, with excess revenues stored in the Russian Stabilization Fund. In 2006, Russia repaid most of its previously huge debt, leaving it with one of the lowest foreign debt among the major economies. The Stabilization Fund helped Russia to get out of the global financial crisis in a country much better than many experts had predicted.

The simpler and more efficient tax code adopted in 2001 reduced the tax burden on people and dramatically increased state revenues. Russia has a fixed tax rate of 13%. It places it as the second most attractive private tax system for the world's sole managers after the United Arab Emirates. According to Bloomberg, Russia is considered far ahead of most other resource-rich countries in its economic development, with a long tradition of education, science and industry. The country has a higher proportion of higher education graduates than any other country in Eurasia.

The economic development of this country is uneven geographically with the Moscow region contributing a very large part of the country's GDP. Inequality in household income and wealth has also been noted, with Credit Suisse finding the distribution of Russian wealth far more extreme than any other country studying it "deserves to be placed in a separate category." Another problem is the modernization of infrastructure, aging and inadequate after years of neglect in the 1990s; the government has said $ 1 trillion will be invested in infrastructure development by 2020. In December 2011, Russia was approved as a member of the World Trade Organization after 18 years of dialogue, allowing it greater access to overseas markets. Some analysts predict that WTO membership can bring the Russian economy up by 3% every year. Russia ranks second most corrupt countries in Europe (after Ukraine), according to the Corruption Perceptions Index. The Norwegian-Russian Chamber of Commerce also stated that "[c] orruption is one of the biggest issues that must be addressed by Russian and international companies." Corruption in Russia is considered a significant problem affecting all aspects of life, including public administration, law enforcement, health care and education. The phenomenon of corruption is largely determined in the historical model of public government in Russia and is associated with the general weakness of the rule of law in Russia. According to the 2016 Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index, Russia ranks 131 places out of 176 countries with a score of 29.

The Central Bank of Russia announced plans in 2013 to free the Russian ruble by 2015. According to a stress test conducted by the central bank, Russia's financial system will be able to handle 25-30% currency reductions without major central bank interference. However, the Russian economy began to stagnate in late 2013 and in combination with the War in Donbass in danger of entering stagflation, slow growth and high inflation. The recent decline in Russian rubles has increased the cost for Russian firms to make interest payments on debts issued in US dollars or other currencies that have strengthened against the ruble; so the cost of Russian companies more than their ruble-denominated income to pay their debt holders in dollars or other foreign currency. In March 2016, the ruble was devalued more than 50 percent since July 2014. In addition, after bringing inflation down to 3.6% in 2012, the lowest level since gaining independence from the Soviet Union, inflation in Russia jumped to nearly 7.5% on in 2014., caused the central bank to increase its lending rate to 8% from 5.5% in 2013. In an October 2014 article on Bloomberg Business Week, it was reported that Russia has significantly begun shifting its economy toward China in response to escalating financial tensions after the Crimean annexation and subsequent Western economic sanctions.

Corruption

There are many estimates of the true cost of corruption. According to official government statistics from Rosstat, the "shadow economy" occupies only 15% of Russia's GDP in 2011, and this includes unreported wages (to avoid taxes and social payments) and other types of tax evasion. According to Rosstat's estimates, corruption in 2011 amounted to only 3.5 to 7% of GDP. In comparison, some independent experts argue that corruption consumes as much as 25% of Russia's GDP. The World Bank report puts this figure at 48%. There is also an interesting shift in the main focus of bribery: while previous officials take bribes to close their eyes to lawlessness, they now take them only to perform their duties. Many experts admit that in recent years corruption in Russia has become a business. In the 1990s, employers had to pay different criminal groups to provide " krysha " (literally, "roof", that is, protection). Currently, this "protective" function is performed by officials. A corrupt hierarchy is characteristic of various economic sectors, including education.

Ultimately, the Russians pay for this corruption. For example, some experts believe that rapid tariff increases for housing, water, gas and electricity, significantly outpacing inflation, are a direct result of high levels of corruption at the highest level. In recent years, the reaction to corruption has changed: from Putin's second term, very few cases of corruption are targeted by anger. Putin's system is remarkable for cameras

Source of the article : Wikipedia