The zoological history before the theory of evolution of 1859 Charles Darwin traced the organized study of the animal kingdom from ancient times to modern times. Although the concept of zoology as a single coherent field emerges much later, the systematic study of zoology is seen in the works of Aristotle and Galen in the ancient Greco-Roman world. This work was developed in the Middle Ages by Islamic medicine and scholarship, and in turn their work was extended by European scholars such as Albertus Magnus.
During Renaissance Europe and early modern periods, zoological thought was revolutionized in Europe by a renewed interest in the empiricism and discovery of many new organisms. Prominent in this movement were the anatomist Vesalius and the physiologist William Harvey, who used careful experiments and observations, and naturalists such as Carl Linnaeus and Buffon who began to classify the diversity of life and fossil records, as well as the development and behavior of organisms. Microscopic reveals a world of unknown microorganisms, laying the groundwork for cell theory. The increasing importance of natural theology, in part as a response to the emergence of mechanical philosophy, encourages the growth of natural history (albeit rooted in the argument of design).
During the 18th and 19th centuries, zoology became an increasingly professional scientific discipline. Naturalist explorers such as Alexander von Humboldt investigate the interactions between organisms and their environment, and the way these relationships depend on geography - lay the foundation for biogeography, ecology and ethology. Naturalists begin to resist essentialism and consider the importance of species extinction and mutability. Cell theory provides a new perspective on the fundamental fundamentals of life. These developments, as well as the results of embryology and paleontology, were synthesized in Charles Darwin's theory of evolution through natural selection. In 1859, Darwin placed the theory of organic evolution on a new footing, with the discovery of the process by which organic evolution could occur, and providing evidence of observation that he had done so.
Video History of zoology (through 1859)
Zoologi pra-ilmiah
Earliest humans should possess and share knowledge about animals to increase their chances of survival. This may include non-systematic knowledge of human and animal anatomy and aspects of animal behavior (such as migration patterns). People learned more about animals with the Neolithic Revolution some 10,000 years ago. Humans tame animals when people become shepherds and then farmers, not hunter-gatherers in civilizations like the ancient Egyptians.
Ancient Eastern Culture
Ancient cultures Mesopotamia, the Indian subcontinent, and China, among others, produced famous surgeons and students from the natural sciences such as Susruta and Zhang Zhongjing, reflecting a sophisticated and independent system of natural philosophy. The Taoist philosophers, such as Zhuangzi in the 4th century BC, expressed ideas related to evolution, such as denying biological species stipulations and speculating that species have developed different attributes in response to different environments. The ancient Indian Ayurveda tradition independently developed the concept of three humor, which resembles four ancient Greek humor treatments, although the Ayurvedic system includes further complications, such as a body of five elements and seven basic tissues. Ayurvedic authors also classify living things into four categories based on the method of birth (from uterus, egg, heat & moisture, and seed) and explain the conception of the fetus in detail. They also make significant advances in surgery, often without the use of human surgery or animal surgery. One of the earliest Ayurvedic treatises was the Sushruta Samhita , which was associated with Sushruta in the 6th century BC. It is also an early materia medina, describing 700 medicinal plants, 64 preparations from mineral sources, and 57 preparations based on animal sources. However, the roots of modern zoology are usually traced back to the secular tradition of ancient Greek philosophy. Ancient Greek Tradition
The pre-Socratic philosophers asked many questions about life but produced little systematic knowledge of special zoological interests - though the atomists' attempts to explain life in pure physical terms would be repeated periodically through the history of zoology. However, the medical theory of Hippocrates and his followers, especially humorism, has a lasting impact.
Maps History of zoology (through 1859)
Aristotelian zoology
Aristotle
The philosopher Aristotle created the science of biology, based his theory on his metaphysical principles and on observation. He proposed theories for metabolic processes, temperature regulation, information processing, embryonic development and inheritance. He made a detailed observation of nature, especially the customs and attributes of marine animals in Lesbos. He classifies 540 species of animals, and dissects at least 50.
Aristotle, and almost all Western scholars after him until the eighteenth century, believed that beings were arranged on a scale of graded perfection from plant to man: scala naturae or Large Presence Chains.
Hellenistic Zoology
Some scholars in the Hellenistic period under Ptolemies - especially Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Chios - altered the physiological work of Aristotle, even conducted experimental surgery and surgery. Claudius Galen became the most important authority in medicine and anatomy. Although some ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenge the teleological point of view of Aristotle that all aspects of life are the result of design or purpose, teleology (and after the resurrection of Christianity, natural theology) remained central to biological thinking until the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
Medieval and Islamic Zoology
The decline of the Roman Empire led to the loss or destruction of much knowledge, although doctors still incorporated many aspects of Aristotle's tradition into training and practice. In Byzantium and the Islamic world, many of Aristotle's works are translated into Arabic and commented on by scholars like Avicenna and Averroes.
Medieval Muslim doctors, scientists and philosophers made a significant contribution to the knowledge of zoology between the 8th and 13th centuries during the Golden Age of Islam. The Afro-Arab al-Jahiz scholar (781-869) describes early evolutionary ideas such as the struggle for existence. He also introduced the idea of ​​a food chain, and was an early adopter of environmental determinism.
During the High Middle Ages, several European scholars such as Hildegard of Bingen, Albertus Magnus and Frederick II expanded the canon of natural history. Magnus's De animalibus libri XXVI is one of the most extensive studies of zoological observations published before modern times.
Renaissance and modern beginnings
From anatomy to systematic taxonomy
The Renaissance is the age of the collectors and travelers, when many of these stories are really proved as true when living or preserved specimens are brought to Europe. Verification by collecting objects, rather than anecdotal accumulations, then becomes more common, and scientists develop new faculty from careful observation. The Renaissance brought an expanded interest in the history and natural physiology of empiricism. In 1543, Andreas Vesalius inaugurated the modern era of Western medicine with his seminal human anatomy treatise De humani corporis fabrica , based on corpse surgery. Vesalius was the first in a series of anatomists who gradually replaced scholasticism with empiricism in physiology and medicine, relying on first-hand experience rather than abstract authority and reasoning. Bestiaries - genres that combine the natural and figurative knowledge of animals - also become more sophisticated. The great Conrad Gessner zoologist, Historiae animalium , appeared in four volumes, 1551-1558, in ZÃÆ'¼rich, the fifth published in 1587. His works are the starting point of modern zoology. Other great works were produced by William Turner, Pierre Belon, Guillaume Rondelet, and Ulisse Aldrovandi. Artists such as Albrecht DÃÆ'¼rer and Leonardo da Vinci, often working with naturalists, are also interested in animal and human bodies, studying physiology in detail and contributing to the growth of anatomical knowledge.
In the 17th century, enthusiasts of the new sciences, natural observers by means of observation and experimentation, shaped themselves into academies or societies for mutual support and discourse. First established a surviving European academy, Academia Naturae Curiosorum (1651) is primarily limited to descriptions and illustrations of plant and animal structures; eleven years later (1662) The Royal Society of London was founded with a royal charter, which had existed without a permanent name or organization for the previous seventeen years (from 1645). Soon the Academy of Sciences of Paris was founded by Louis XIV, then still the Royal Society of Sciences at Uppsala was founded. Systematized, named and classified zoologies dominated throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. Carl Linnaeus published a basic taxonomy for the natural world in 1735 (variations that have been used since then), and in the 1750s introduced a scientific name for all its species. While Linnaeus regards the species as an unchanging part of the designed hierarchy, another great naturalist of the eighteenth century, Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, treats species as artificial categories and life forms as soft - even indicating the possibility of common descent. Although he wrote in an era before evolution existed, Buffon was a key figure in the history of evolutionary thought; His "transformist" theory will influence the evolutionary theory of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and Charles Darwin.
Before the Age of Exploration, naturalists did not know much about biological diversity. The discovery and description of new species and collection of specimens becomes the passion of scientific masters and companies that benefit the entrepreneurs; many naturalists roam the world to seek scientific knowledge and adventure.
Extending the work of Vesalius into experiments on living bodies (humans and animals), William Harvey investigates the role of blood, blood vessels and arteries. Harvey's De motu cordis in 1628 was the beginning of the end of Galenician theory, and in addition to Santorio Santorio's study of metabolism, it served as an influential model of quantitative approach to physiology.
Impact of microscope
At the beginning of the 17th century, the micro-zoological world was just beginning to open. Some lens-makers and natural philosophers have created rough microscopes since the late sixteenth century, and Robert Hooke published the seminal Micrographia based on observations with his own master microscope in 1665. But not until Antony van Leeuwenhoek dramatic improvements in the manufacture of lenses starting in the 1670s - eventually yielding magnifications up to 200-fold with a single lens - that scientists discovered spermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria and the peculiarities and diversity of microscopic life. A similar investigation by Jan Swammerdam caused a renewed interest in entomology and built the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and coloration.
The debate about the flood described in the Bible catalyzes the development of palaeontology; in 1669 Nicholas Steno published an essay on how the remains of living organisms can be trapped in layers of sediment and mineralization to produce fossils. Although Steno's ideas on fossilization are well known and much debated among natural philosophers, organic origin for all fossils will not be accepted by all naturalists until the late 18th century because of the philosophical and theological debates on issues such as the age of the earth. and extinction.
Advances in microscopy also have a major impact on biological thinking. At the beginning of the 19th century, a number of biologists pointed to the importance of cell centers. In 1838 and 1839 Schleiden and Schwann began to promote the idea that (1) the basic units of organisms are cells and (2) that individual cells have all the characteristics of life, though they are opposed to the idea that (3) all cells come from the division of the cell- other cells. Thanks to the work of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow, however, in the 1860s, most biologists accepted all three principles which came to be known as the cell theory.
Previous In Origin of Species
Until the nineteenth century, the scope of zoology was largely divided between physiology, which investigated the question of form and function, and natural history, relating to the diversity of life and interaction between various life forms and between life and non-life.. By 1900, many of these domains overlapped, while natural history (and its peer philosophy) had largely given way to more specialized disciplines - cytology, bacteriology, morphology, embryology, geography, and geology. The widespread journey by naturalists in the early nineteenth century generated much new information about the diversity and distribution of living organisms. The most important is the work of Alexander von Humboldt, who analyzes the relationship between organisms and their environment (ie, the domain of natural history) using a quantitative approach of natural philosophy (ie, physics and chemistry). Humboldt's work laid the foundations of biogeography and inspired several generations of scientists.
The emerging geological discipline also brings nature's history and natural philosophy closer; Georges Cuvier and others made great strides in comparative anatomy and paleontology in the late 1790s and early 19th century. In a series of lectures and papers that make detailed comparisons between living mammals and Cuvier's fossil remains able to establish that they are remnants of extinct species - rather than the remains of living species elsewhere in the world, such as it is widely believed. The fossils discovered and described by Gideon Mantell, William Buckland, Mary Anning, and Richard Owen among others helped establish that there was a 'reptile age' that had even preceded prehistoric mammals. This discovery captures the public imagination and focuses on the history of life on earth.
Charles Darwin, combining Humboldt's biogeography approach, Lyell's uniformitarian geology, Thomas Malthus's writings on population growth, and his own morphological expertise, created a more successful theory of evolution based on natural selection; similar evidence led Alfred Russel Wallace to independently reach the same conclusion. Charles Darwin's early interest in nature took him on a five-year voyage at HMS Beagle that established him as a prominent geologist whose observations and theories support Charles Lyell's uniformitarian ideas, and his travel journal publications made him famous as a popular writer. Confused by the geographic distribution of wildlife and fossils that he collected on the journey, Darwin investigated the transmutation of species and composed his theory of natural selection in 1838. Although he discussed his ideas with some naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and geological work. has priority. He wrote his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay depicting the same idea, encouraging direct publication of both their theories. Darwin About the Origins of Species , published on November 24, 1859, a seminal scientific literary work, is to be the foundation of evolutionary biology.
See also
- List of zoologists
- List of Russian zoologists
- Important Publications in Zoology
- Zoological timeline
References
Source
- Desmond, Adrian J.; Moore, James (1991). Darwin . Warner Books.
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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