Physics (from Ancient Greece: ?????? (????????) , translit.Ã, physics? (epist? m?) , lit.Ã, 'knowledge of nature' , from ????? phÃÆ'½sis "nature") is a natural science that studies matter and its motion and behavior through space and time and who study the energy entities and associated forces. Physics is one of the most fundamental disciplines, and its main purpose is to understand how the universe behaves.
Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines and, through the entry of astronomy, perhaps the oldest. For the last two millennia, the physics, chemistry, biology, and branches of certain mathematics were part of natural philosophy, but during the scientific revolution of the 17th century, these natural sciences emerged as unique research efforts in their own right. Physics intersects with many areas of interdisciplinary research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms learned by other sciences and suggest new avenues of research in academic disciplines such as mathematics and philosophy.
Progress in physics often enables progress in new technologies. For example, advances in the understanding of electromagnetism and nuclear physics directly lead to the development of new products that have dramatically transformed modern society, such as television, computers, household appliances, and nuclear weapons; progress in thermodynamics led to the development of industrialization; and advances in mechanics inspire the development of calculus.
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History
Ancient astronomy
Astronomy is one of the oldest natural sciences. The earliest civilizations dated from 3000 BC, such as the Sumerians, ancient Egyptians, and Indus Valley Civilizations, had predictive knowledge and basic understanding of the motions of the Sun, Moon, and stars. Stars and planets are often worshiped, believed to represent gods. While the explanations for the observed positions of stars are often unscientific and lacking in evidence, these early observations laid the foundations for later astronomy, when stars were found across large circles in the sky, which however did not explain the position of the planets.
According to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western attempts in exact sciences are derived from late Babylonian astronomy. Egyptian astronomers abandoned monuments that demonstrate knowledge of the constellations and movements of celestial bodies, while the Greek poet Homer wrote the various celestial bodies in his book Iliad and Odyssey ; then Greek astronomers gave names, still used today, for most of the constellations seen from the northern hemisphere.
Natural philosophy
Natural philosophy had its origins in Greece during the Archaic period, (650 BC - 480 BC), when pre-Socratic philosophers such as Thales rejected the non-naturalistic explanations for natural phenomena and declared that every event has a natural cause. They proposed ideas that were verified by reason and observation, and many of their hypotheses proved successful in experiments; for example, atomism was found to be true about 2000 years after it was proposed by Leucippus and his disciple Democritus.
Physics in Europe and medieval Islam
The Western Roman Empire fell in the fifth century, and this resulted in a decline in intellectual pursuits in western Europe. In contrast, the Eastern Roman Empire (also known as the Byzantine Empire) rejected attacks from barbarians, and continued to advance the various fields of learning, including physics.
In the sixth century, Isidore Miletus created an important compilation of the work of Archimedes which was copied in Archimedes Palimpsest.
In the sixth century Europe, John Philoponus, a Byzantine scholar, questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics and noted his shortcomings. He introduced the theory of encouragement. Aristotelian physics was not researched until John Philoponus emerged, and unlike Aristotle who based physics on verbal arguments, Philoponus relied on observations. About the physics of Aristotle, John Philoponus writes:
"But this is completely wrong, and our view may be corroborated by observations that are actually more effective than with verbal arguments, because if you let fall of the same height, two weights that are once more heavier than others, you will see that the ratio of time which is necessary for movement independent of the weight ratio, but the time difference is very small, so if the difference in weight is not large, that is, one of them, let's say, duplicate the other, there will be no difference, or unseen differences, in time, even if the weight difference is meaningless can be ignored, with one body weighing twice as much "
John Philoponus's critique of the principles of Aristotle physics served as an inspiration to Galileo Galilei ten centuries later, during the Scientific Revolution. Galileo cites Philoponus substantially in his works when it states that Aristotle's physics is flawed. In the 1300s Jean Buridan, a teacher at the art faculty at the University of Paris, developed the concept of encouragement. It is a step towards the modern idea of ​​inertia and momentum.
Islamic scholars inherited Aristotelian physics from Greece and during the Islamic Golden Age developed it further, especially placing emphasis on observation and priori reasoning, developing an early form of the scientific method.
The most notable innovations are in the field of optics and vision, derived from the works of many scientists such as Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. The most important work is The Book of Optics (also known as Kit? B al-Man? Ir), written by Ibn al-Haytham, in which he definitely refutes the ancient Greek idea of ​​vision, but also came up with a new theory. In the book, he presented a study of the phenomenon of camera obscura (the thousand-year version of pinhole camera) and delves further into the way the eye itself works. Using surgery and prior knowledge of scholars, he was able to explain how light enters the eye. He asserts that the rays of light are focused, but the actual explanation of how the light projected onto the back of the eye had to wait until 1604. His Treatise on Light described the camera obscura hundreds of years before the development of modern photography.
The seven volumes of the Book of Optics ( Kitab al-Manathir ) strongly influenced cross-disciplinary thinking from the theory of visual perception to the nature of perspective in Medieval art, both in the East and the West, for more than 600 years. Many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to Renà © ¨ Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, were in debt. Indeed, Ibn Al-Haytham's Optics influence ranks together that the work of Newton with the same title, which was published 700 years later.
The Book of Optics' translation has a major impact on Europe. From there, European scholars were then able to build the replicating device Ibn al-Haytham built, and understand the workings of light. From here, important things like glasses, magnifying glass, telescopes, and cameras are developed.
Classical physics
Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what is now regarded as the laws of physics.
Major developments in this period included the replacement of geocentric models of the solar system with the Copernican heliocentric model, the laws governing planetary motion defined by Johannes Kepler between 1609 and 1619, pioneering work on telescopes and observational astronomy by Galileo Galilei in the 16th and 17th centuries; the discovery of Isaac Newton and the union of universal laws of motion and universal gravitation to bear his name. Newton also developed calculus, the study of mathematical change, which provides new mathematical methods for solving physical problems.
The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from greater research efforts during the Industrial Revolution when energy demand increased. Laws consisting of classical physics remain widely used for objects on a daily scale that travel at non-relativistic speeds, because they provide very close estimates in such situations, and theories such as quantum mechanics and the theory of relativity simplify to their classical equivalents scales. However, the inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high speed led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century.
modern physics
Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory and Albert Einstein's theory of relativity. Both these theories arise because of inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Classical mechanics estimates the varying speed of light, which can not be solved by the constant velocity predicted by Maxwell's electromagnetism equations; this difference is corrected by Einstein's special theory of relativity, which replaces classical mechanics for fast moving objects and allows constant speed of light. Black body radiation provides another problem for classical physics, which is corrected when Planck proposes that the excitation of the oscillator material is possible only in separate steps proportional to their frequency; this, along with the photoelectric effect and complete theory predict the discrete energy level of the electron orbital, led to the theory of quantum mechanics taking over from classical physics on a very small scale.
Quantum mechanics will be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin SchrÃÆ'¶dinger and Paul Dirac. From this initial work, and working in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics is derived. After the discovery of particles with properties consistent with the Higgs boson at CERN in 2012, all the fundamental particles predicted by the standard model, and nothing else, appear to exist; However, physics outside the Standard Model, with such theories as supersymmetry, is an active research area. The field of mathematics is generally important for this field, such as the study of probabilities and groups.
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Philosophy
In many ways, physics comes from ancient Greek philosophy. From Thales' first attempt to characterize matter, for the important Democratic deduction must be reduced to the invariant state, Ptolemaic astronomy of a crystal, and the book Aristotle Physics (the early physics book, which attempts to analyze and define motion from an angle philosophical point of view), various Greek philosophers propose their own natural theories. Physics was known as natural philosophy until the end of the 18th century.
In the 19th century, physics was realized as a different discipline from philosophy and other sciences. Physics, like any other science, depends on the philosophy of science and the "scientific method" to advance our knowledge of the physical world. The scientific method uses a priori a priori and a posteriori reasoning and use of Bayesian inference to measure the validity of a particular theory.
The development of physics has answered many questions from early philosophers, but has also raised new questions. The study of philosophical problems surrounding physics, philosophy of physics, involves issues such as the nature of space and time, determinism, and metaphysical views such as empiricism, naturalism and realism.
Many physicists have written about the philosophical implications of their work, for example Laplace, who championed causal determinism, and Erwin SchrÃÆ'¶dinger, who wrote about quantum mechanics. The mathematical physicist Roger Penrose has been called a Platonist by Stephen Hawking, a view Penrose discusses in his book, The Road to Reality. Hawking calls himself a "shameless reductionist" and takes issue with Penrose's view.
Core theory
Although physics deals with various systems, certain theories are used by all physicists. Each of these theories was tested experimentally many times and found to be an adequate approach to nature. For example, classical mechanical theory accurately describes the motion of objects, provided they are much larger than atoms and move much less than the speed of light. These theories continue to be an active field of research today. The theory of chaos, a remarkable aspect of classical mechanics was discovered in the 20th century, three centuries after the original formulation of classical mechanics by Isaac Newton (1642-1727).
These central theories are an important tool for research into more specialized topics, and every physicist, regardless of their specialization, is expected to be literate in it. These include classical mechanics, quantum mechanics, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, electromagnetism, and special relativity.
Classical physics
Classical physics includes traditional and recognized branches and topics before the beginning of the 20th century - classical mechanics, acoustics, optics, thermodynamics, and electromagnetism. Classical mechanics deals with the body being moved by moving forces and bodies and can be divided into statics (studies of the strengths of the body or body that are not accelerated), kinematics (motion studies regardless of cause), and dynamics (study of motion and forces that influence it ); Mechanics can also be divided into solid mechanics and fluid mechanics (known together as continuum mechanics), the latter include branches such as hydrostatic, hydrodynamic, aerodynamic, and pneumatic. Acoustics is the study of how sound is produced, controlled, transmitted, and received. Important modern acoustic branches include ultrasound, the study of sound waves with very high frequencies outside the reach of human hearing; bioacoustics, physics of call and hearing animals, and electroacoustics, sound wave manipulation that sounds electronic.
Optics, light studies, are not only related to visible light but also with infrared and ultraviolet radiation, which exhibits all visible light phenomena except for visibility, for example, reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction, dispersion, and light polarization.. Heat is a form of energy, the internal energy possessed by the particles in which a substance is formed; Thermodynamics deals with the relationship between heat and other forms of energy. Electricity and magnetism have been studied as a branch of physics since the intercourse between them was discovered in the early 19th century; electric current generates a magnetic field, and a changing magnetic field induces an electric current. Electrostatics is related to electrical charges at rest, electrodynamics with moving charges, and magnetostatics with magnetic poles at rest.
modern physics
Classical physics generally deals with matter and energy on a normal observational scale, while much of modern physics deals with the behavior of matter and energy in extreme conditions or on a very large or very small scale. For example, atomic and nuclear physics studies are important on the smallest scale in which chemical elements can be identified. Basic particle physics is on a smaller scale as it relates to the most basic unit of matter; this physics branch is also known as high-energy physics because of the very high energy required to produce many types of particles in a particle accelerator. On this scale, the general notions of reason, time, matter, and energy are no longer valid.
The two main theories of modern physics present a different picture of the concept of space, time, and matter than presented by classical physics. Classical chemistry approaches nature as sustainable, while quantum theory deals with the discrete nature of many phenomena at the atomic and subatomic levels and with the complementary aspects of particles and waves in the description of the phenomenon. The theory of relativity deals with the description of phenomena occurring within the frame of reference in motion with respect to an observer; the special theory of relativity deals with relatively uniform motion in a straight line and the general theory of relativity with accelerated motion and its relation to gravity. Both quantum theory and the theory of relativity find application in all areas of modern physics.
The difference between classical and modern physics
While physics aims to discover universal law, its theories lie in the domain of explicit application. Freely, the laws of classical physics accurately describe systems whose length scale is more important than the atomic scale and its movement is much slower than the speed of light. Outside of this domain, observations do not match the predictions given by classical mechanics. Albert Einstein contributed a special frame of relativity, which replaced the notion of time and space with the spacetime of the absolute and allows an accurate description of systems whose components have speeds close to the speed of light. Max Planck, Erwin SchrÃÆ'¶dinger, and others introduced quantum mechanics, the probabilistic ideas of particles and interactions that allowed accurate and atomic-scale subatomic description. Then, quantum field theory unifies quantum mechanics and special relativity. General relativity allows a dynamic and curved spacetime, with which a very massive system and large-scale structure of the universe can be well described. General relativity has not been united with other fundamental descriptions; several theories of quantum gravitational candidates are being developed.
Relation to other fields
Prerequisites
Mathematics provides a concise and precise language used to describe sequences in nature. It is recorded and supported by Pythagoras, Plato, Galileo, and Newton.
Physics uses mathematics to organize and formulate experimental results. From these results, the exact or approximate solution, the quantitative results from which a new prediction can be made and confirmed experimentally or negated. The result of a physics experiment is a numerical measurement. Mathematics-based technology, such as computing, has made computational physics an active research area.
Ontology is a prerequisite for physics, but not for mathematics. This means physics is essentially related to real-world descriptions, whereas mathematics deals with abstract patterns, even outside the real world. Thus the physical statements are synthetic, while the mathematical statements are analytic. Mathematics contains hypotheses, while physics contains theories. Mathematical statements should be only logically correct, while the predictions of physical statements should be in accordance with observational and experimental data.
The difference is obvious, but not always clear. For example, mathematical physics is a mathematical application in physics. The method is mathematical, but the subject is physical. Problems in this field begin with "mathematical models of physical situations" (systems) and "mathematical descriptions of physical laws" to be applied to the system. Every mathematical statement used to solve has a hard physical meaning found. The last mathematical solution has a much easier meaning to find, because that's what the solver is looking for.
Physics is a branch of basic science, not a practical science. Physics is also called "basic science" because the subject of study of all branches of natural sciences such as chemistry, astronomy, geology, and biology is limited by the laws of physics, similar to how chemistry is often called central science because of its role in connecting the physical sciences. For example, chemistry studies the properties, structures, and reactions of matter (the chemical focus on the atomic scale distinguishes it from physics). Structures are formed because particles exert electrical forces with each other, properties include the physical characteristics of the given substance, and the reaction is bound by the laws of physics, such as conservation of energy, mass, and charge.
Physics is applied in industries such as engineering and medicine.
Apps and effects
Applied physics is a generic term for physics research that is intended for particular use. Applied physics curricula usually contain several classes in applied disciplines, such as geology or electrical engineering. This is usually different from the technique in that applied physicists may not design something in particular, but rather use physics or do physics research with the aim of developing new technology or solving problems.
The approach is similar to applied mathematics. Applied physicists use physics in scientific research. For example, people working on accelerator physics may attempt to build better particle detectors for research in theoretical physics.
Physics is used in engineering. For example, statics, a subfield of mechanics, is used in the construction of bridges and other static structures. Understanding and use of acoustics produce better sound control and concert halls; similarly, the use of optics creates better optical devices. Physics understanding makes more realistic flight simulators, video games, and movies, and is often important in forensic investigations.
With the standard consensus that the laws of physics are universal and do not change over time, physics can be used to study things that would normally be mired in uncertainty. For example, in the study of the origin of the earth, one can reasonably model the mass, temperature, and rate of the Earth's rotation, as a function of time that allows one to extrapolate forward or backward in time and thus predict the future or previous event. It also allows for simulations in engineering that drastically accelerate the development of new technologies.
But there is also considerable interdisciplinary in physics methods, so many other important areas are influenced by physics (eg, the fields of economics and sociophysics).
Research
Scientific method
Physicists use scientific methods to test the validity of physical theory. Using a methodical approach to compare the implications of a theory with the conclusions drawn from his experiments and their associated observations, physicists are better able to test the validity of the theory in a logical, unbiased, and repetitive way. For that reason, experiments are carried out and observations are made to determine the validity or invalidity of the theory.
Scientific law is a brief verbal or mathematical statement of a relation expressing the fundamental principles of some theories, such as Newton's universal law of gravity.
Theory and experiment
The theorists sought to develop mathematical models that both agreed with existing experiments and successfully predicted future experimental results, while experimentalists designed and conducted experiments to test theoretical predictions and explore new phenomena. Although theories and experiments developed separately, they are highly dependent on one another. Advances in physics often arise when researchers make discoveries that existing theories can not explain, or when new theories produce experimental experimental predictions that inspire new experiments.
Physicists working in the interaction of theory and experiment are called phenomenologists, who study complex phenomena observed in experiments and work to relate them to fundamental theories.
Theoretical physics has historically drawn inspiration from philosophy; electromagnetism is united in this way. Beyond the known universe, the field of theoretical physics also deals with hypothetical issues, such as parallel universes, multiversees, and higher dimensions. The theorists invoke these ideas in the hope of solving certain problems with existing theories. They then explore the consequences of these ideas and try to make predictions that can be tested.
Experimental physics develops, and is expanded by, engineering and technology. Experimental physicists involved in basic research design and experimenting with equipment such as particle accelerators and lasers, while those involved in applied research often work in industries that develop technologies such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and transistors. Feynman has noted that experimentalists can look for areas that are not explored well by theorists.
Coverage and goals
Physics includes various phenomena, from basic particles (such as quarks, neutrinos, and electrons) to the greatest superclusters of galaxies. Included in this phenomenon is the most basic object that makes up everything else. Therefore, physics is sometimes called "basic science". Physics aims to describe the various phenomena that occur in nature in terms of simpler phenomena. Thus, physics aims to connect things that can be observed by humans to the root cause, and then connect these causes together.
For example, ancient Chinese observed that certain rocks (magnetic stones and magnetite) are attracted to one another by invisible forces. This effect is then called a magnet, which was first studied in depth in the 17th century. But even before the Chinese discovered magnetism, the ancient Greeks knew about other objects such as amber, that when rubbed with feathers would cause a similar invisible appeal between the two. It was also first studied carefully in the 17th century and then called electricity. Thus, physics has understood two natural observations in relation to several root causes (electricity and magnetism). However, further work in the 19th century revealed that these two forces are but two different aspects of one force - electromagnetism. This "unifying" power process continues today, and weak electromagnetism and force are now regarded as two aspects of electro-interaction. Physics hopes to find the main reason (Theory of Everything) for why nature is as it is (see the Current research section below for more information).
Field of research
Contemporary research in physics can be broadly divided into nuclear physics and particles; condensed matter physics; atomic, molecular, and optical physics; astrophysics; and applied physics. Several physics departments also support physics education research and physics outreach.
Since the twentieth century, individual fields of physics have become increasingly specialized, and today most physicists work in one area for their entire career. "Universalists" such as Albert Einstein (1879-1955) and Lev Landau (1908-1968), working in various fields of physics, are now very rare.
The main areas of physics, along with their subfields and the theories and concepts they use, are shown in the following table.
Nuclear physics and particles
Particle physics is the study of the basic elements of matter and energy and the interaction between them. In addition, particle physicists design and develop high-energy accelerators, detectors, and computer programs necessary for this research. This field is also called "high-energy physics" because many elementary particles do not occur naturally but are only created during high-energy collisions from other particles.
Currently, the interaction of elementary particles and planes is explained by the Standard Model. This model is responsible for 12 known matter particles (quarks and leptons) that interact through strong, weak, and electromagnetic fundamental forces. The dynamics are explained in terms of the material particles that exchange the measuring boson (gluon, W and Z bosons, and photons, respectively). The Standard Model also predicts a particle known as the Higgs boson. In July 2012 CERN, the European laboratory for particle physics, announces particle detection consistent with the Higgs boson, an integral part of the Higgs mechanism.
Nuclear physics is a field of physics that studies the constituents and interactions of atomic nuclei. The most well known applications of nuclear physics are nuclear power and nuclear weapons technology, but this research has provided applications in many areas, including in nuclear medicine and magnetic resonance imaging, ion implantation in materials engineering, and radiocarbon dating in geology and archeology..
Atomic, molecular, and optical physics
Atomic, molecular, and optical physics (AMO) is the study of materials and light-matter interactions on the scale of atoms and single molecules. The three fields are grouped together because of their relevance, the similarity of the methods used, and the similarity of the relevant energy scale. The three areas include classic, semi-classical and quantum care; they can treat their subject from a microscopic look (in contrast to a macroscopic view).
Atomic physics studies the atomic electron shells. Current research focuses on activities in quantum control, cooling and trapping of atoms and ions, the dynamics of low temperature collisions and the effect of electron correlations on structure and dynamics. The atomic physics is influenced by the nucleus (see, for example, the separation of hyperfine), but intra-nuclear phenomena such as fission and fusion are considered part of nuclear physics.
Molecular physics focuses on multi-atomic structures and their internal and external interactions with matter and light. Optical physics differs from optics in that it tends to focus not on classical light field control by macroscopic objects but on the basic properties of the optical plane and their interactions with matter in the microscopic realms.
Condensed matter physics
Condensed matter physics is a field of physics that deals with the macroscopic physical properties of matter. In particular, it deals with the "viscous" phase that arises whenever the number of particles in a system is very large and the interactions between them are strong.
The best known condensed phase example is a solid and liquid substance, arising from bonding by means of electromagnetic forces between atoms. More exotic condensed phases include Bose-Einstein superfluids and condensates found in certain atomic systems at very low temperatures, superconducting phases exhibited by electron conduction of certain materials, and the ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic phases of the spin in the atomic lattice.
Condensed matter physics is the largest field of contemporary physics. Historically, condensed matter physics grew out of solid-state physics, which is now regarded as one of its main sub-fields. The term "thick matter physics" was apparently coined by Philip Anderson when he changed the name of his research group - formerly solid-state theory - in 1967. In 1978, the Division of Physical State Physics Solid Physics America was renamed the Division of Thick Material Physics. Condensed matter physics has a great overlap with chemistry, materials science, nanotechnology and engineering.
Astrophysics
Astrophysics and astronomy are the application of theories and methods of physics to study star structure, star evolution, the origin of the Solar System, and cosmological related problems. Because astrophysics is a broad subject, astrophysicists usually apply many disciplines of physics, including mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, relativity, particle and nuclear physics, and atomic and molecular physics.
The discovery by Karl Jansky in 1931 that radio signals emitted by celestial bodies initiated radio astronomy. More recently, the boundaries of astronomy have been expanded by space exploration. Disturbances and disturbances of the Earth's atmosphere make space-based observations necessary for infrared, ultraviolet, gamma rays, and X-ray astronomy.
Physical cosmology is the study of the formation and evolution of the universe on its largest scale. Albert Einstein's theory of relativity plays a central role in all modern cosmological theories. At the beginning of the 20th century, Hubble's discovery that the universe expands, as the Hubble diagram shows, prompted the explanation of rivals known as the steady state universe and the Big Bang.
The Big Bang was confirmed by the success of Big Bang's nucleosynthesis and the discovery of cosmic microwave backgrounds in 1964. The Big Bang model rests on two theoretical pillars: Albert Einstein's general relativity and cosmological principles. Recent cosmologists have shaped the CDM model of the evolution of the universe, which includes cosmic inflation, dark energy, and dark matter.
Many anticipated possibilities and discoveries will emerge from new data from the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope over the coming decade and revise or clarify existing models of the universe. In particular, the potential for extraordinary discoveries around dark matter is possible over the next few years. Fermi will look for evidence that dark matter consists of weakly interacting massive particles, completing similar experiments with the Large Hadron Collider and other underground detectors.
IBEX has already yielded new astrophysical discoveries: "Nobody knows what creates the energetic ENA (energetic neutral atoms) of the tape" along the sun's winding end, "but everyone agrees that it means a heliosphere textbook image - where the envelope pouch The Solar System filled with sun-wind charged particles plowing through the 'galaxy wind' of the interstellar medium in comet-wrong form. "
Latest research
Research in physics continues to grow in a large number of fronts.
In condensed matter physics, the important unsolved theoretical problem is high temperature superconductivity. Many thick matter experiments aim to make a workable spintronics and quantum computer.
In particle physics, the first part of experimental evidence for physics outside the Standard Model has begun to emerge. Particularly among these is an indication that the neutrino has a non-zero mass. The results of this experiment seem to have solved the longstanding problem of solar neutrino, and massive neutrino physics remains an active field of theoretical and experimental research. The Large Hadron Collider has discovered Higgs Boson, but future research aims to prove or disprove supersymmetry, which extends the Standard Model of particle physics. Research on the nature of the main mystery of dark matter and dark energy is also currently underway.
The theoretical attempts to unify quantum mechanics and general relativity into a theory of quantum gravity, a program that lasted for more than half a century, have not been resolved conclusively. The current leading candidates are the M-theory, superstring theory, and the quantum gravity loop.
Many astronomical and cosmological phenomena have not been explained satisfactorily, including the origin of ultra-high energy cosmic rays, baryon asymmetry, the acceleration of the universe and the anomalous rate of galaxy rotation.
Although much progress has been made in high-energy, quantum, and astronomical physics, many everyday phenomena involving complexity, chaos, or turbulence are still poorly understood. The complex problems that seem to be solved with the application of intelligent dynamics and mechanics are still unsolved; examples include the formation of sand, knots in dripping water, droplets, surface tension stress mechanisms, and self-sorting in heterogeneous collections.
This complex phenomenon has received increasing attention since the 1970s for several reasons, including the availability of modern mathematical methods and computers, allowing complex systems to be modeled in new ways. Complex physics has become part of an increasingly interdisciplinary research, as exemplified by the study of turbulence in aerodynamics and the observation of pattern formation in biological systems. In 1932 <<> Overview of Fluid Mechanics , Horace Lamb said:
I am old now, and when I die and go to heaven there are two things I wish for enlightenment. One is quantum electrodynamics, and the other is a turbulent fluid movement. And about my ex is a bit optimistic.
See also
Note
References
Source
Further reading
- Peter Woit (January 2017). Fake Physics,
External links
General
- The Physics Encyclopedia at Scholarpedia
- de Haas, Paul, Historic Documents in Physics (20th Century) at Wayback Machine (archived August 26, 2009)
- PhysicsCentral - A web portal run by the American Physical Society
- Physics.org - A web port run by the Institute of Physics
- Skeptical Guide for Physics
- Usenet Physics FAQ - FAQ compiled by sci.physics and other physics newsgroups
- Nobel Prize website in physics
- World of Physics An encyclopedic online physics dictionary
- Nature : Physics
- Physics announced July 17, 2008 by the American Physical Society
- Physics/Publications on Curlie (based on DMOZ)
- Physicsworld.com - News website of the Institute of Physics Publishing
- The Physics Center - including articles on astronomy, particle physics, and mathematics.
- The Vega Science Trust - a science video, including physics
- Video: Tour of "Lightning" Physics with Justin Morgan
- 52 part video course: The Mechanical Universe... and Beyond Note: also available at 01 - Introduction in Google Videos
- HyperPhysics website - HyperPhysics, physics and astronomy mind map of Georgia State University
Organization
- AIP.org - American Institute of Physics site
- APS.org - Site of the American Physical Society
- IOP.org - Physics Institute website
- PlanetPhysics.org
- The Royal Society - Although it is not just a physics institution, it has a strong physics history.
- SPS National - The Society of Physics Students Website
Online course learning resources
- PHYSICS at MIT OCW-Site MIT OpenCourseWare
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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