Microbiology (from the Greek ?????? , m? kros , "small"; ???? , bios , "live" and title - ????? , -logia ) is the study of microorganisms, single cell (single cell), multicellular (cell colony), or acellular (less cells). Microbiology covers many sub-disciplines including virology, parasitology, mycology, and bacteriology.
Eukaryotic microorganisms have membrane-bound cell organelles and include fungi and protists, whereas prokaryotic organisms - all of which are microorganisms - are conventionally classified as organelles that are not bound to the membrane and include eubacteria and archaebacteria. Microbiology has traditionally relied on culture, staining, and microscopy. However, less than 1% of microorganisms present in the general environment can be cultured in isolation using the current means. Microbiology often relies on molecular biology tools such as DNA sequence identification, an example of a sequence of 16 rRNA genes used for bacterial identification.
Viruses are variously classified as organisms, because they have been regarded as very simple microorganisms or highly complex molecules. Prions, never considered as microorganisms, have been investigated by virologists, however, because the clinical effects traced to them were initially suspected due to chronic viral infection, and virology took the search - finding "infectious proteins".
The existence of microorganisms predicted centuries before they were first observed, for example by Jain in India and by Marcus Terentius Varro in ancient Rome. The first recorded microscope observation was from a mushroom fruit body, by Robert Hooke in 1666, but Jesuit priest Athanasius Kircher was probably the first to see the microbes, which he mentioned observing in milk and decay in 1658. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was considered a microbiological father as he observed and experimented with microscopic organisms in 1676, using a simple microscope of its own design. Scientific microbiology developed in the 19th century through the work of Louis Pasteur and in medical microbiology Robert Koch.
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Histori
The existence of microorganisms is hypothesized for centuries before their actual discovery. The existence of an invisible microbiological life postulated by Jainism is based on the teachings of Mahavira as early as the 6th century BC. Paul Dundas notes that Mahavira affirms the existence of unseen microbiological creatures that live on earth, water, air and fire. The Jain scriptures describe the nigoda which is a sub-microscopic creature that lives in a large group and has a very short life, said to encompass every part of the universe, even in plant tissue and animal flesh. Roman Marcus Terentius Varro makes reference to microbes when he warns against finding homesteads around the swamp "because there are certain small creatures that the eye can not see, which floats in the air and enters the body through the mouth and nose and with thus causing serious illness. "
In the golden age of Islamic civilization, some scientists hypothesized the existence of microorganisms, such as Avicenna in his book The Canon of Medicine Ibn Zuhr (also known as Avenzoar) who discovered scabies, and Al-Razi gave the earliest descriptions about smallpox in his book The Virtuous Life (al-Hawi).
In 1546, Girolamo Fracastoro proposed that epidemic diseases were caused by transferable seed entities that could transmit the infection through direct or indirect contact, or vehicle transmission.
In 1676, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, who lived much of his life in Delft, the Netherlands, observed bacteria and other microorganisms using a single lens microscope from his own design. He is considered the father of microbiology as he pioneered the use of a simple microscope with a single lens from his own design. While Van Leeuwenhoek is often cited as the first person to observe microbes, Robert Hooke made his first microscopic observation of the mushroom fruit body, in 1665. However, it has been suggested that a Jesuit priest called Athanasius Kircher was the first to observe micro-organisms.
Kircher was among the first to design a magic lantern for projection purposes, so he must have known the lens properties well. He wrote, "Regarding the beautiful structure of things in nature, investigated by the Microscope" in 1646, stating "who would believe that vinegar and milk abound with countless worms." He also notes that rotting material filled with innocent creeping animalscules. He published his book Scrutinium Pestis in 1658, stating correctly that the disease was caused by microbes, although what he saw was likely to be red or white blood cells rather than the plague agent itself.
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Birth of bacteriology
The field of bacteriology (later subdisciplinary microbiology) was founded in the 19th century by Ferdinand Cohn, a botanist who studies on algae and photosynthetic bacteria led him to describe several bacteria including Bacillus and Beggiatoa. Cohn was also the first to formulate a taxonomic classification scheme of bacteria, and found endospores. Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch are contemporaries of Cohn, and are often regarded as the father of microbiology and medical microbiology, respectively. Pasteur is the most famous for his series of experiments designed to disprove the widely held theory of spontaneous generation, thus reinforcing the microbiological identity as a biological science. One of his students, Adrien Certes, is considered the founder of marine microbiology. Pasteur also devised methods for food preservation (pasteurization) and vaccines against several diseases such as anthrax, cholera and rabies. Koch is well known for his contribution to the germ theory of disease, proving that certain diseases are caused by certain pathogenic microorganisms. He developed a series of criteria known as Koch postulates. Koch was one of the first scientists to focus on isolation of bacteria in pure culture that produced descriptions of several new bacteria including Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the tuberculosis-causing agent.
While Pasteur and Koch are often regarded as the founders of microbiology, their work does not accurately reflect the true diversity of the microbial world because of their exclusive focus on micro-organisms that have direct medical relevance. It was not until the late nineteenth century and the work of Martinus Beijerinck and Sergei Winogradsky that the extent of microbiology was revealed. Beijerinck made two major contributions to microbiology: the discovery of viruses and the development of enrichment culture techniques. While his work on tobacco mosaic virus establishes virological basic principles, it is the development of enrichment enrichment that has the most rapid impact on microbiology by allowing for the cultivation of various microbes with very different physiology. Winogradsky was the first to develop the concept of chemolithotrophy and thus reveal the important role played by micro-organisms in the geochemical process. He is responsible for the isolation and first description of the nitrifying and nitrogen-binding bacteria. French-Canadian microbiologist Felix d'Herelle discovered bacteriophage in 1917 and was one of the earliest applied microbiologists.
Joseph Lister was the first person to use a phenol disinfectant in a patient's open wound.
Branch
Branches of microbiology can be classified into pure and applied science, or divided by taxonomy, as well as with bacteriology, mycology, protozoology, and phycology. There is much overlap between specific microbiological branches with each other and with other disciplines, and certain aspects of these branches may extend beyond the traditional microbiological sphere
Apps
While some are afraid of microbes due to the association of some microbes with various human diseases, many microbes are also responsible for various beneficial processes such as industrial fermentation (eg production of alcohol, vinegar and dairy products), the production of antibiotics and acts as a molecular vehicle for transferring DNA to complex organisms such as plants and animals. Scientists have also exploited their knowledge of microbes to produce biotechnologically important enzymes such as Taq polymerase, reporter genes for use in other genetic systems and new molecular biology techniques such as a two-hybrid system of yeast.
Bacteria can be used for industrial production of amino acids. Corynebacterium glutamicum is one of the most important bacterial species with annual production of more than two million tons of amino acids, especially L-glutamate and L-lysine. Because some bacteria have the ability to synthesize antibiotics, they are used for medicinal purposes, such as Streptomyces to make aminoglycoside antibiotics.
Various biopolymers, such as polysaccharides, polyesters, and polyamides, are produced by microorganisms. Microorganisms are used for biotechnology production of biopolymers with tailored properties suitable for high-value medical applications such as tissue engineering and drug delivery. Microorganisms are used for the biosynthesis of xanthan, alginate, cellulose, cyanophycin, poly (gamma-glutamic acid), levan, hyaluronic acid, organic acids, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides, and polyhydroxyalkanoate.
Microorganisms are beneficial for microbial biodegradation or bioremediation of domestic, agricultural and industrial wastes as well as subsurface pollution, sediment and marine environments. The ability of any microorganism to degrade toxic waste depends on the nature of each contaminant. Since the site typically has some type of pollutant, the most effective approach to microbial biodegradation is to use a mixture of species and bacterial and fungal strains, each specifically for biodegradation of one or more types of contaminants.
Symbiotic microbial communities provide benefits to human and animal health including helping digestion, producing beneficial vitamins and amino acids, and suppressing pathogenic microbes. Some of the benefits can be given by eating fermented foods, probiotics (bacteria that potentially beneficial to the digestive system) or prebiotics (substances consumed to increase the growth of probiotic microorganisms). The microbiome ways affect human and animal health, as well as methods for influencing microbiome are active areas of research.
Studies have shown that microorganisms can be useful in the treatment of cancer. Various non-pathogenic clostridia strains can infiltrate and replicate in solid tumors. Clostridial vectors can be safely administered and their potential for providing therapeutic proteins has been shown in a variety of preclinical models.
See also
References
External links
- Media related to Microbiology on Wikimedia Commons
- nature.com Recent research, reviews and news on microbiology
- Mikroba.info is a microbiological information portal containing a large collection of resources including articles, news, frequently asked questions, and links related to microbiology.
- The Microbiology of In Our Time on the BBC.
- Immunology, Bacteriology, Virology, Parasitology, Mycology and Infectious Diseases
- Annual Reviews of Microbiology
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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