Cognitive development is a field of study in neurosciences and psychology that focuses on child development in terms of information processing, conceptual resources, perceptual skills, language learning, and other aspects of developed adult brain and cognitive psychology. The qualitative distinction between how a child processes his waking experiences and how adults process their awakening experiences is recognized. Cognitive development is defined in adult terms as the emergence of the ability to consciously consciously and consciously understand and articulate their understanding. From an adult's point of view, cognitive development can also be called intellectual development
Most research has become an understanding of how a child feels the world. Jean Piaget was the main force that built this field, forming his "cognitive development theory". Piaget proposes four stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor , preoperational , concrete operations and formal operations .
Many of Piaget's theoretical claims have since been disliked. However, a description of the most prominent changes in cognition with age, generally still accepted today (eg, how early perception moves from dependent on concrete, external actions.Then, abstract understanding of the observable aspects of reality can be captured, the release of rules and the underlying abstract principle usually begins in adolescence)
Perhaps equally important, Piaget identifies and describes many of the cognitive changes that must be explained, such as the scarcity of objects in infancy and the understanding of logical relationships and the reasons for effects on school-aged children. Many of the phenomena he describes still attract many researchers today.
However, in recent years, alternative models have advanced, including information processing theory, neo-Piagetian cognitive developmental theory, which aims to integrate Piaget's ideas with more current models and concepts in developmental and cognitive science, cognitive neuroscience theoretical, and social- constructivist approaches.
A major controversy in cognitive development is "nature versus nurture", that is, the question if cognitive development is primarily determined by the innate quality of an individual ("nature"), or by their personal experience ("nurture"). However, it is now recognized by most experts that this is a false dichotomy: there is much evidence of biological and behavioral science that from its starting point in development, gene activity interacts with events and experiences in the environment.
Cognitive development and motor development may also be closely related. When a person experiences nervous developmental disorders and his cognitive development is disrupted, we often see adverse effects in motor development as well. The cerebellum, which is part of the brain most responsible for motor skills, has been shown to have significant significance in cognitive function in the same way that the prefrontal cortex has an important task in not only cognitive abilities but also the development of motor skills. To support this, there is evidence of neocerebellum and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex co-activation in functional neuroimaging as well as abnormalities seen in the cerebellum and prefrontal cortex in the same developmental disorder. In this way, we see a close connection of motor development and cognitive development and they can not operate in their full capacity when one of them is disturbed or delayed.
Video Cognitive development
Historical origin: History and theory of cognitive development.
Jean Piaget is inevitably associated with cognitive development. It is clear that in Piaget's writings that there are influences from many historical predecessors. Some of the worth mentioning are included in the following Historical Origins graph. This is intended to be a more inclusive list of researchers who have learned the process of acquiring more complex thinking as people grow and develop:Jean Piaget (1896-1980) believed that people move through stages of development that enable them to think in new, more complicated ways.
Sensorimotor stage
The first stage in Piaget's cognitive developmental stage is the sensorimotor stage. This stage lasts from birth to two years. During this stage, behavior has no thinking and logic. Behavior gradually moves from acting on the inherited reflex to interact with the environment with purpose in mind and be able to represent the outside world in the end.
The sensorimotor stage has been broken down into six sub-stages explaining the gradual development of infants from birth to age 2. After the child gains the ability to mentally represent reality, the child begins to transition to the preoperative development stage.
Born up to one month
Every child is born with inherited reflexes they use to gain knowledge and understanding of their environment. Examples of these reflexes include grasping and sucking.
1-4 months
Children repeat behavior that occurs unexpectedly because of their reflexes. For example, a child's fingers come into contact with the mouth and the child begins to suck it. If the sensation is fun for the child, then the child will try to recreate the behavior. Baby uses their initial reflexes (grasping and sucking) to explore their environment and create schemes. A scheme is a group of actions or similar thoughts that are used repeatedly in response to the environment. Once a child begins to create a scheme they use accommodation and assimilation to become more adaptable to the world. Assimilation is when a child responds to a new event in a manner consistent with the existing schema. For example, a baby may assimilate a new teddy bear into putting things in their mouth scheme and using their reflexes to make teddy dolls go into their mouths. Accommodation is when a child either modifies an existing schema or forms an entirely new scheme to handle new objects or events. For example, a baby may have to open his mouth wider than usual to accommodate teddy bear feet. 5-8 months
The child has experience with an external stimulus that they think is fun, so they try to recreate that experience. For example, a child accidentally bumps into a mobile phone in bed and likes to see it spin. When it stops, the child starts holding the object to make it rotate again. At this stage the habit is formed from a common scheme that a baby has created but does not yet have, from a child's point of view, any differentiation. between means and objectives. Children also can not focus on many tasks at once, and only focus on existing tasks. The child can create the habit of turning the phone in his bed, but they are still trying to figure out a method to reach the phone to make it rotate in a way they think is fun. After another interruption (say the parents walk in the room) the baby will no longer focus on the phone. Toys should be given to infants who respond to child actions to help foster their instinctive instinct. For example, a toy plays a song when you press a button, and then an image appears if you press another key. 8-12 months
Behavior will be displayed for a reason and not by chance. They begin to understand that one action can cause a reaction. They also begin to understand the permanent object , which is an awareness that the object continues to exist when the form view is removed. For example: Babies want toys but blankets are blocking. Baby moves a blanket to make toys. Now babies can understand that objects still exist, they can distinguish between objects, and objects experience. According to psychologist David Elkind, "An internal representation of a non-existent object is an early manifestation of a symbolic function that gradually develops during the second year of life whose activity dominates the next stage of mental growth." 12-18 months
Actions occur intentionally with some variation. For example a baby drum on a pot with a wooden spoon, then a drum on the floor, then on the table.
18-24 months
Children start building mental symbols and start participating in mock games. For example, a child mixes materials together but does not have a spoon so they pretend to use one or use other objects to replace the spoon . Symbolic Mind is the representation of objects and events as mental entities or symbols that help drive cognitive development and the formation of the imagination. According to Piaget, babies begin to act on intelligence rather than habit now. The final product is set after the baby is pursuing the appropriate means. Means are formed from schemes known to the child. Children begin to learn how to use what they have learned in the first two years to develop and explore their environment further.
Preoperational stage
It lasts from 2 years to 6 or 7. It can be characterized by two rather different ways. In his earlier work, before he developed his theory of structuralist cognition, Piaget describes children's thinking during this period as governed by principles such as egocentrism, animism and other similar constructs. Egocentrism is when a child can only see a certain situation in its own way. One can not understand that others have other views and perceptions of the scenario. Animism is when an individual gives objects that do not live like human qualities. An individual usually believes that this object has human emotions, thoughts, and intentions. Once he proposes his structuralist theory, Piaget characterizes a preoperational child because it lacks the cognitive structure that a concrete operational child possesses. The absence of this structure explains, in part, Piaget's earlier behavior is described as egocentric and animistic, such as the inability to understand that other individuals may have different emotional responses to similar experiences. During this stage the children also become increasingly adept at using symbols as evidenced by improved play and pretense.
Concrete operational phase
It lasts from 6 or 7 years to about 12 or 13. During this stage the child's cognitive structure can be characterized by reality. Piaget argues that the same general principles can be seen in various behaviors. One of the most notable achievements of this stage is conservation. In a typical conservation experiment, a child is asked to assess whether two quantities are the same or not - like two equal amounts of fluid in a short and high glass. Preoperative children will usually assess higher and thinner glass to accommodate more, while a concrete operational child will assess the same amount. The ability to reason in this way reflects the development of conservation principles.
Formal operational phase
It lasts from 12 or 13 to adulthood and progresses from logical reasoning with concrete examples being abstract examples. The need for concrete examples is no longer necessary because abstract thinking can be used instead. At this stage, teenagers can also see themselves in the future and can imagine the ideal life they want to pursue. Some theorists believe that the formal operational stage can be divided into two sub-categories: initial formal operations and the thought of late formal operations. Early formal operational thoughts may be illusory, but when teenagers advance to the end of formal operational thinking, the life experience they encounter transforms these fantasy thoughts into realistic thinking.
Criticism
Many of his claims are no longer favored. For example, he claims that small children can not save the amount. However, further experiments show that children do not really understand what is being asked of them. When experiments were done with candy, and children were asked which sets they wanted instead of having to tell more adults, they did not show any confusion about which group had more items.
Maps Cognitive development
Another theoretical perspective on cognitive development
Cognition core system specified
Empirical learn how this skill can be learned in a short time. The debate about whether the system is studied by learning devices for general purpose, or domain-specific cognition. In addition, many modern cognitive development psychologists, who recognize that the term "innate" is incompatible with modern knowledge of epigenesis, neurobiological development, or learning, supporting a non-nativist framework. Researchers who discuss "core systems" often speculate about differences in thinking and learning between proposed domains. Researchers who place a set of so-called "core domains" show that children have innate sensitivity to certain types of information patterns. Which is usually quoted among others:
Figures
The baby seems to have two systems to handle numbers. One transaction with small numbers, often called subitizing. Another agreement with bigger numbers is estimated.
Space
Very young children seem to have skills in navigation. This basic ability to infer the direction and distance of the unseen location develops in a way that is not entirely clear. However, there is some evidence that this involves developing a complex language skill between 3 and 5 years. Also, there is evidence that this skill relies heavily on the visual experience, since congenitally blind individuals have been found to have impaired ability to conclude new pathways between known locations.
Visual perception
One of the original debates of nativist versus empircist is deep perception. There is some evidence that children younger than 72 hours can feel complicated things like biological movements. However, it is unclear how the visual experience in the first few days contributed to this perception. There is a much more complicated aspect of visual perception developing during infancy and beyond.
Essentialism
Young children seem to tend to think about biological entities (eg, animals and plants) in an essentialistic way. This means that they expect such entities (as opposed to, for example, artifacts) have many traits such as the internal nature caused by some "essence" (as, within the conceptual framework of the modern West, the genome).
Acquisition language
A large and well-studied process and the consequences of cognitive development is the acquisition of language. The traditional view is that this is the result of specific deterministic genetic structures and processes. Other traditions, however, have emphasized the role of social experience in language learning. However, the relationship of gene activity, experience, and language development is now recognized as very complex and difficult to determine. Language development is sometimes separated into phonological learning (sound systematic organization), morphology (linguistic unit structure - root words, affixes, speech parts, intonation, etc.), syntax (grammatical rules in sentence structure), semantics ( the study of meaning), and discourse or pragmatics (relationships between sentences). However, all aspects of this language knowledge - originally assumed by Noam Chomsky linguist to be autonomous or separate - are now recognized to interact in complex ways.
Bilingualism
More recently, bilingualism has actually been accepted as a contributing factor to cognitive development. Ellen Bialystok, is, and is a great game changer in this field. Bialystok has been doing years of research on the effects of bilingualism on cognitive development. There are a number of studies that show how bilingualism contributes to the executive functioning of the brain, which is a major center in which cognitive development occurs. According to Bialystok in "Bilingualism and Development of Executive Functions: Role of Attention", bilingual children, must actively filter through two different languages ​​to choose the one they need to use, which in turn makes for stronger development within the center.
Whorf Hypothesis
Benjamin Whorf (1897-1941), while working as a student of Edward Sapir, argued that one's thinking depends on the structure and content of the language of their social group. In other words, the belief that language determines our thoughts and perceptions. For example, it was once thought that the Greeks, who wrote left to right, thought differently from the Egyptians since the Egyptians wrote from right to left. Whorf's theory is so tight that he believes that if a word is not in the language, then the individual is unaware of the existence of the object. This theory is played in the book George Orwell, Animal Farm; The leaders of the pigs slowly remove words from the vocabulary of citizens so that they are not able to realize what they miss. The Whorfian Hypothesis fails to recognize that people can still be aware of concepts or goods, even though they do not have an efficient encoding to quickly identify target information.
Quine bootstrap hypothesis
Willard Van Orman Quine (1908-2000) argues that there is an innate conceptual bias that allows language acquisition, concepts, and beliefs. Quine theory follows a nativist philosophical tradition, like a European rationalist philosopher, eg Immanuel Kant.
Neo-Piagetian cognitive development theory
The Neo-Piagetian theory of cognitive development emphasizes the role of information processing mechanisms in cognitive development, such as attention control and working memory. They suggest that development along Piagetian or other levels of cognitive development is a function of strengthening the control mechanism and increasing the working memory storage capacity.
Neuroscience
During development, especially in the first few years of life, children exhibit interesting neural development patterns and high levels of neuroplasticity. Neuroplasticity, as described by the World Health Organization, can be summed up in three points. 1.) Any adaptive mechanism used by the nervous system to repair itself after injury. 2.) Any means employed by the nervous system to repair the damaged central circuit individually. 3.) Any means by which the capacity of the central nervous system can adapt to new physiological conditions and the environment. The relationship of brain development and cognitive development is complex and, since the 1990s, has been a growing field of research.
Cultural influence
From the perspectives of psychologists, minds and cultures form one another. In other words, culture can affect the structure of the brain which then affects our interpretation of culture. These examples reveal cultural variations in nerve responses:
The Tasks of Drawings (Hedden et al. , 2008)
Behavioral research shows that one's strength in an independent or interdependent task is different according to the cultural context. In general, East Asian cultures are more interdependent while Western cultures are more independent. Hedden et al. assessed functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) responses of East Asians and Americans while they performed independent (absolute) or interdependent (relative) tasks. Research shows that participants use areas of the brain associated with attention control when they have to perform culturally incompatible tasks. In other words, the neural pathways used for the same task are different for Americans and East Asians (Hedden et al., 2008).
Kobayashi et al., 2007
Kobayashi et al. comparing the brain responses of monolingual British and British-English children in understanding the intentions of others through false confidence stories and cartoon duties. They found a universal activation of the bort- eral ventrophial prefrontal cortex region in the theory of the task mind. However, American children showed greater activity in left inferior frontal gyrs during duty while Japanese children had greater activity in the right frontal right gyrus during the task of Japanese Mind Theory. In conclusion, these examples show that brain neuronal activity is not universal but culturally dependent.
See also
- Reuven Feuerstein
- Developmental psychology
- Child development stage
- Baby's cognitive development
- Genetics of human behavior
References
Further reading
- Klausmeier, J. Herbert & amp; Patricia, S. Allen. "Cognitive Development of Children and Adolescents: Longitudinal Studies". 1978. p. 3, 4, 5, 83, 91, 92, 93, 95, 96
- McShane, John. "Cognitive Development: Information Processing Approach". 1991. pp.Ã, 22-24, 140, 141, 156, 157
- Begley, Sharon. (1996) Your Child's Brain. Newsweek. Record: 005510CCB734C89244420. http://www.creativekids.com.au/Site/Ideas/4A97BE71-CFBB-405E-9C46-B78EC8F92238_files/NewsWeek-YourChildsBrain-2.pdf
- Cherry, Kendra. (2012). Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development. Psychosocial Development in Infancy and Early Childhood. Retrieved from http://psychology.about.com/od/psychosocialtheories/a/psychosocial.htm
- Freud, Lisa (10/05/2010). Cognitive Psychology of Developmental, Neuroscience Behavior, and Psychobiology Program. Eunice Kennedy Shiver: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Retrieved from http://www.nichd.nih.gov/about/org/crmc/cdb/prog_dcpbnp/index.cfm
- Davies, Kevin. (4/17/2001). Nature vs Nurture Revisited. NOVA. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/body/nature-versus-nurture-revisited.html
- Walkerdine, Valerie (1990). Mastery Reason: Cognitive Development and Production Rationality . London: Routledge. ISBN: 978-0-415-05233-7.
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