Political violence is a broad term used to describe violence perpetrated by a person or government to achieve political goals. Many groups and individuals believe that their political system will never respond to their demands. As a result, they believe that violence is not only justified but also necessary to achieve their political goals. Similarly, many governments around the world believe that they need to use force to intimidate their population into consent. Other times, the government uses the power to defend their country from outside invasion or threats of other forces and to force other governments or conquer the territory. Political violence may take a number of forms including but not limited to those listed below. Non-action on the part of the government can also be characterized as a form of political violence.
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Political violence varies greatly in form, severity, and practice. In political science, the general organizing framework is to consider the types of violence by the relevant actors: violence between non-state actors, one-sided violence perpetrated by state actors against civilians, and
Violence between non-state actors
Fighting between non-state actors without state security forces plays a direct role in the conflict.
Ethnic conflict
An ethnic conflict occurs between ethnic groups.
One-sided violence by non-state actors
Terrorism
Terrorism as a form of political violence is usually done by weaker parties of a conflict, and thus may also fall under violence between state and non-state actors.
Although there is no concrete definition of terrorism, the US Defense Department defines terrorism as, "the calculated use of unlawful violence or the threat of unlawful violence to instill fear, is intended to coerce or intimidate government or society in the pursuit of goals. political, religious, or ideological. "What is and is not considered terrorism is a hot topic to debate, but terrorism creates a climate of fear.
One-sided violence by state
The use of force by organized armed groups, be it government or non-state groups, resulting in the death of civilians. According to the Human Security Reports Project, a unilateral campaign of violence was recorded whenever violence against civilians committed by one group resulted in at least 25 reported deaths within a calendar year.
Genocide
One form of political violence is genocide. Genocide is usually defined as "deliberate and systematic destruction, in whole or in part, of ethnic, racial, religious or national group", although what constitutes enough of the "part" to qualify as genocide has much debated by law scholars. Genocide is usually done with open or secret support from governments of countries where genocidal activity occurs. The Holocaust is the most widely cited example of the genocide history.
Torture
Torture is an act that causes great pain (both physical and psychological) as a means of punishment, revenge, forcing information or recognition, or just as an act of atrocity. Torture is prohibited under international law and domestic law of most countries in the 21st century. This is considered a violation of human rights and declared unacceptable by Article 5 of the UN Declaration on Human Rights. The signing of the Third Geneva Convention and the Fourth Geneva Convention has formally agreed not to torture detainees in armed conflict. National and international law prohibitions on torture stem from a consensus that torture and ill-treatment are equally immoral, and impractical. Despite international conventions, torture cases continue to emerge as the torture scandal and the Abu Ghraib prisoner scandal of 2004 by US Army military police personnel. Organizations such as Amnesty International and the International Rehabilitation Council for Victims of Torture monitor human rights violations and report widespread violations of human torture by countries in many regions of the world. Amnesty International estimates that at least 81 governments today are torturing, some of them openly.
Death penalty
The death penalty is the death sentence of a person by the state as a punishment for an offense. This does not include extrajudicial killing, which is the killing of a person by a government authority without sanction from litigation or legal proceedings. The use of capital punishment by the state varies, but according to Amnesty International 58 countries are still actively using the death penalty, and in 2010, 23 countries executed and 67 sentenced to death. Methods of implementation in 2010 include beheading, electricity, hanging, lethal injections and shooting. In 2007, the UN General Assembly passed a UN moratorium on the death penalty calling for the abolition of the death penalty worldwide.
Police brutality
Police brutality is another form of political violence. This is most often explained in juxtaposition with the term excessive force. Police brutality can be defined as "a civil rights violation that occurs when a police officer acts with excessive force using a number of powers associated with a civilian more than necessary." Police brutality and excessive use of force are present worldwide and in the United States alone, 4,861 police violation incidents are reported during 2010 (see also Police brutality (United States)). Of these, there were 6,826 casualties involved and 247 casualties.
Hunger
Hunger can be initiated or extended to deny resources, enforce compliance, or to reduce the number of residents with recalcitrant or unreliable residents.
Violence between state and non-state actors
At least one of the parties involved is the government of a country.
Rebellion
Riot
A riot can be described as a violent intrusion by a group of individuals formed to protest errors and/or perceived injustices. This can range from poverty and inequality to government unemployment and oppression. They can manifest themselves in some way but most often in the form of property damage. The unrest was marked by a lack of predictability and anonymity of their participants. Both make it difficult for authorities to identify those who participate.
The unrest has been analyzed in a number of ways but most recently in the context of the frustration-aggression model theory, stating that the aggression seen in many riots is a direct result of the frustrated group with certain aspects of their lives. Extensive and prolonged unrest may cause and/or produce rebellion or revolution. There are also several types of unrest including but not limited to police riots, race riots, prison riots, and sports riots.
Revolution
Civil War
Also known as an intrastate war, civil war is a war that fights in the same country or country among organized groups. Less commonly, it can also occur between two countries that have been created from one previously united country. Often these conflicts involve a group that wants to control a territory or express dissatisfaction with the government. There is usually a desire to overthrow the existing power or at least change some of their policies. In many cases, outside forces can intervene on behalf of one party if they share their ideology or condemn their opponent's methods/motives. Civil wars typically intensify with ongoing action, large numbers of armed and civilian casualties, and dramatic consumption of national resources.
Countermeasures
Counter-insurgency , another form of political violence, describes the spectrum of actions taken by the government of a recognized state to withhold or quell the rebellion taken against it. There are many different doctrines, theories, and tactics adopted for counter-insurgency aimed at protecting governmental authority and to reduce or eliminate the authority that replaces the rebels. Because it may be difficult or impossible to distinguish between rebels, non-combatant rebel advocates, and members who are completely uninvolved in the population, counter-insurgency operations often rest on confusing, relativistic, or situational differences. between guerrillas and non-combatants. Counter-insurgency operations are common during war, occupation and armed rebellion.
Inter-state war
War is a state of organized, armed, and often prolonged conflict that occurs between states, countries, or other parties characterized by extreme aggression, social disorder, and usually high mortality. War must be understood as a real, deliberate and widespread armed conflict between the political community, and therefore defined as a form of political violence. Three of the ten most expensive wars, in the event of loss of life, have been waged in the last century: the death toll of World War II, estimated at more than 60 million, surpassed all other war deaths by a factor of two. An estimated 378,000 people die from war each year between 1985 and 1994.
Maps Political violence
Trends
Scholarships and data show that violence has declined. Since World War II, there has been a decline in the battle of death and since the Cold War, there has been a decline in conflict. Recently, scholars have begun to question this long-held belief.
Long-term trends
Since World War II, there has been a decline in the battle of death and since the Cold War, there has been a decline in conflict. Between 1992 and 2005, violent conflict worldwide declined by 40 percent. In The Better Angels of Our Nature, Steven Pinker argues that this decline has not occurred for the past 60 years, but it has been going on for over thousands of years.
Data sets on political violence have shown a similar tendency.
For example, the Center for Systemic Peace found that in the post-World War II armed conflict it was at its peak when the Soviet Union collapsed. From the 1990s to the early 2000s, the level of armed conflict declined. Recently, armed conflict began to increase as political violence in the Middle East and Africa began to increase.
Uppsala Conflict Data Program (UCDP), another project that collects data on armed conflict, also found a similar trend. UCDP defines armed conflict as a conflict involving the government of a country that "produces at least 25 war related deaths within a calendar year."
In their view of armed conflict, UCDP has found that the number of armed conflicts in the world has declined since the end of the Cold War, however, there are some recent trends. In the past ten years, UCDP has found an increasing trend in the number of international armed conflicts, "the conflict between the state government and the internal opposition groups with the intervention of other countries."
Critique
More recently, the conventional wisdom that violent conflict has declined is being challenged. Experts argue that the current data, focusing on the number of battle deaths per country per year, is misleading.
Tanisha Fazal argues that war has become less fatal because of medical advances that helped make more people live during the war. Therefore, the threshold of combat deaths used by UCDP and other organizations to determine cases of armed conflict is misleading. A conflict "that produced 1,000 death battles in 1820 would likely result in more overall casualties (where victims, correctly understood, including those killed and wounded) rather than conflict with 1,000 death battles today." The current data makes it look like, the war becomes less frequent, but it is not.
Bear F. Braumoeller argues that seeing per capita mortality data is "a misleading and irrelevant statistic" because it does not tell us how the war really happened. The decline in war-related deaths could mean that population growth exceeds the death of the war or that "fewer people are at risk of war deaths". Instead, we must check the willingness of a country to go to war. Braumoeller created a new metric for conflict called "power usage", which is the number of military disputes that reach at least level 4 on a 5 point scale of the Militarized Interstate Dispute War Correlation. He found that the use of force had remained stable since the 1800s through the First World War, but after World War I the use of force continued to increase. Braumoeller creates another metric called "the use of relevant force per digit", which is the use of force between neighboring states or states with a single great power. Using this metric he found that there was no downward trend in the level of conflict initiation since the post-World War II period. In addition, he found that the level of conflict has remained stable over the last two hundred years and a slight increase and decrease in the use of force is random.
Current trends
Armed conflict
By 2014, UCDP estimates that 126,059 people are killed in organized violence, which is the highest number of deaths in the post-Cold War period. Syria has the most violent conflict followed by Iraq and Afghanistan. In addition, there are 40 active armed conflicts in 27 locations in the world. This is the largest number of conflicts reported since 1999.
Regionally, Asia has the largest number of violent conflicts at 14, followed by Africa at 12, Europe on six, Middle East at six, and America in two.
During that year, four new conflicts began, all happening in Ukraine. Three conflicts are resumed by new actors in Egypt, Lebanon and Libya. In addition, six conflicts resumed by previously registered actors in "Azerbaijan (Nagorno-Karabakh), India (Garoland), India-Pakistan, Israel (Palestine), Mali (Azawad), and Myanmar (Kokang)". Finally, seven conflicts in 2013 are no longer active in 2014. Conflict occurred in Central African Republic, Ethiopia (Oromiya), Malaysia (Sabah), Myanmar (Karen), Myanmar (Shan), Mozambique, and Turkey (Kurdistan).
Of the 40 conflicts, 11 have been classified at war level, meaning that there are at least 1,000 deaths in a calendar year. The conflict between India and Pakistan is the only conflict between countries, the conflict between two states or more. Of the 39 remaining conflicts, 13 internationalizations, conflicts between government and internal opposition groups in which other countries intervene. The percentage of internationalized conflict is 33% (13/39), which is the largest proportion of external actors in intrastate conflicts since the post-World War II era.
Terrorism
Just like the armed conflict, there is an increase in the death toll associated with terrorism. In 2014, the US State Department reported 13,463 terrorist attacks in the world. These attacks resulted in at least 32,700 deaths and 34,700 injuries. In addition, more than 9,400 people were abducted or taken hostage. Compared with 2013, the number of terrorist attacks increased by 35% and total deaths increased by 81%.
In 2014, the top five terrorist attacks were Iraq, Pakistan, Afghanistan, India, and Nigeria. In 2013, Iraq, Pakistan, Afghanistan, India, and the Philippines are the countries that have the most number of terrorist attacks.
In 2013 and 2014, the perpetrators responsible for the most terrorist attacks are ISIS, Taliban, al-Shabaab, Boko Haram, and Maoists. Fifty-five percent of the target is private, private, or police citizens. 66% of attacks in Nigeria and 41% of attacks in Iraq are aimed at citizens and private property.
The Global Terrorism Database estimates that between 2004 and 2013, about 50% of all terrorist attacks, and 60% of deaths from terrorist attacks, occur in Iraq, Afghanistan and Pakistan.
Theory
Political violence theory can be organized according to their level of analysis:
- Macro theory explains how political, economic, and social processes lead to political violence
- Micro theory discusses the process of political violence involving individuals and households, such as who participates in violence and what motivates people to participate
Macros
Social conflict theory
The theory of social conflict is a Marxist-based social theory that states that social systems reflect the personal interests of those who own and control resources. Powerful people use political and economic institutions to exploit groups with smaller forces. This causes the rest of society to become alienated or psychologically separate from those in power. The revolution takes place to break the social and economic separation between the powerful and the exploited and "to achieve social equality and unity".
War inefficiency War
The riddle of war inefficiency explains why the country went to war even though the war was expensive. In James Fearon's Rationalist Explanations for War, he insists the war is expensive and it creates an incentive to bargain with others. However, countries do not bargain and instead go to war because of personal information about the ability to fight and incentives to misunderstand this information.
Functionalism
Functionalism views society as "an organism whose whole system must work well for systemic equilibrium to be maintained." However, when there are unexpected surprises to the system, society becomes un-oriented that allows for collective violence.
Bulk community
The masses argue that harsh social movements come from socially isolated people and from political institutions. Alienated people are easily convinced to join radical or extremist movements.
Resource mobilization
Resource mobilization is a theory of social movement that emphasizes the capacity of competing groups to organize and use adequate resources to achieve their goals. Resources can be time, money, organizational skills, and certain social or political opportunities. Political violence occurs when the individual is able to mobilize enough resources to take action.
Primordialism
Primordialism is an explanation of ethnic violence and ethnic conflict. "The inter-ethnic distinction based on racial, linguistic, religious, regional, and other visible features generates interethnic conflict because members of the same group emotionally identify with their group, but do not feel such an identity with people outside the ethnic group they." A
Instrumentalis
Instrumentalism is an explanation of ethnic violence and ethnic conflict. Ethnicity is not attached to human nature. Conflict occurs when leaders manipulate ethnicity for political power or economic gain.
Constructivist
Constructivist is an explanation of ethnic violence and ethnic conflict. Ethnic and national identity is socially constructed and shaped through social, economic and political processes, such as colonization and conquest. Ethnic conflict is the product of the factors that make up ethnic identity and not ethnicity itself.
Youth Circle
A youth bulge occurs when there is a disproportionate percentage of the country's population between the ages of 15 and 24 years. It occurs when the infant mortality rate decreases and the fertility rate increases. This youth bulge increases the working age population; However, that does not mean more jobs are available, leading to severe unemployment. This will lead to a population of young adult males to "prolong dependence on the elderly, reduce self-esteem and fuel frustration". This causes youth to "seek social and economic progress with alternatives, extralegal ways," meaning that the opportunity cost of joining the armed movement is low.
Micro
Rational choice theory
Rational choice theory is a decision-making approach in which decision makers compare the expected utility of competitive options and choose the options that produce the most profitable results. Political violence occurs when the benefits of participating in political violence outweigh the costs.
Relative deprivation
In Why Men Rebel , Ted Robert Gurr uses relative deprivation theory to explain why men commit acts of violence. As Gurr explains, relative deprivation "is defined as the perception of actors about the difference between their value expectations and their value ability." In other words, relative deprivation is a gap between the wants and needs we feel we deserve the opposite of what we are capable of "getting and keeping." Collective dissatisfaction, the gap between expected and accomplished well-being, leads people to use violence.
Collective action theory
Collective action theory explains why people participate in rebellion. A person decides to participate or not participate in rebellion based on benefits and costs. Generally, people decide to be free riders and do not participate in rebellion. These people will still receive the benefits of rebellion because the benefits are public goods. However, if people are expected to receive personal goods, such as material rewards or power, then the person is expected to rebel.
Greed versus complaint
Greed versus complaints provides two lines of explanation for why individuals will fight. Individuals are said to be motivated by greed when they decide to join the conflict in an effort to improve their situation and find that the benefits of joining any insurrection or collective violence are greater than not joining. Individuals are said to be motivated by complaints when they fight over "high inequality, lack of political rights or ethnic and religious divisions in society." In "Greed and Complaints in Civil War", Paul Collier and Anke Hoeffler argue that greed is a better predictor of participating in violence than complaints.
Consequences
As a result of political violence, there are many changes occurring within countries, communities, and individuals.
Macro
The social science literature examines how political violence affects territory, state, nation, and society.
State-building
Charles Tilly argues that "war makes," removes rivals outside the territory, "makes the state", removes rivals in a region, "protects", protects subjects in a region, and "extractions", extracts resources to " the first three activities ", is what defines a country. These four activists depend on the country's ability to use and monopolize violence. In other words, politically motivated and non-political violence is necessary in the development of the state and building fiscal capacity.
Micro
There is an increasing number of social studies studies that examine how political violence affects individuals and households. It is important to remember that what happens at the individual and household level can affect what happens at the macro level. For example, political violence affects the income, health, and achievement of one's education, but this individual consequence can affect the economic growth of a country or country. In other words, the macro and micro consequences of political violence do not occur in a vacuum.
Political impact
There are empirical studies linking violence with increased political participation. One natural experiment examined the effect of kidnapping by Joseph Kony's LRA about political participation. A kidnapped Ugandan youth, or in other words a former child soldier, is more likely to vote for a 2005 Uganda referendum and become a mobilizer/community leader than a Ugandan boy boy who is not kidnapped.
However, this effect is not only contained in Uganda. Another natural trial of the effects of the Sierra Leone civil war found that the families of victims, households whose members were killed, wounded, disabled, captured or refugees were more likely to register to vote, attend community meetings, and participate in local politics. and community groups from non-violent households.
Economic impact
A study of the impact of the Sierra Leone civil war found that victimized households, households whose members were killed, injured, disabled, caught, or displaced did not have long-term impact on asset ownership, child nutrition, consumption and income expenditures.
Data Set
Project Location and Event of Armed Conflict (ACLED)
Project Location and Event of Armed Conflict (ACLED) is a project that collects data on political violence and protests in developing countries, from 1997 to present. As early as 2016, ACLED has recorded more than 100,000 individual events, with ongoing data collection focused on Africa and ten countries in South and Southeast Asia. This data can be used for medium and long-term analysis and mapping of political violence in developing countries through the use of historical data from 1997, as well as informing humanitarian and development work in crisis and conflict-affected contexts through real-time data updates and reports.
The ACLED defines "political violence" as "the use of force by groups with political goals or motivation." The database uses this definition to catalog a number of so-called political events across Africa and Southeast Asia. Political events are described as "a single quarrel in which frequent forces are used by one or more groups for political purposes.The project data catalog nine different types of events.
Human Security Reports Project
Human Security Reports Project or HSRP catalogs global and regional trends in organized violence, causes and consequences. The findings and analysis of the study are published in the Human Safety Report, Human Security Brief series, and miniAtlas of Human Security based in Vancouver, Canada.
Using data from the Uppsala Conflict Data Program, the report tracks 5 types of violence
- State-based armed conflict is cataloged as an international conflict and civil war - where at least
one of the disputing parties is the government of a country. Conflict Between Countries is a conflict between the two states. Intrastate Conflict occurs in a state of like civil war.
- Non-state armed conflict is a conflict consisting of fighting between two armed groups,
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