Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. Organisms and biological communities often vary regularly along the geographical gradient of latitude, elevation, isolation and habitat areas. Phytogeography is a branch of biogeography that studies the distribution of plants. Zoogeography is a branch that studies the distribution of animals.
Knowledge of spatial variation in the number and type of organisms is very important to us today as in our ancestral ancestors, because we adapt to a heterogeneous but geographically predictable environment. Biogeography is a field of integrated inquiry that unites concepts and information from ecology, evolutionary biology, geology, and physical geography.
Modern biogeographic research combines information and ideas from a variety of fields, from physiological and ecological constraints on the spread of organisms to geological and climatological phenomena that operate on a global spatial scale and timeframe of evolution.
Short-term interactions in the habitats and species of organisms describe the application of ecological biogeography. Historical biogeography describes the long-term evolutionary period for the broader classification of organisms. Early scientists, beginning with Carl Linnaeus, contributed to the development of biogeography as a science. Beginning in the mid-18th century, Europeans are exploring the world and discovering the biodiversity of life.
Biogeography scientific theory evolved from the work of Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859), Hewett Cottrell Watson (1804-1881), Alphonse de Candolle (1806-1893), Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913), Philip Sclater (1829-1913) and biologists and other explorers.
Video Biogeography
Introduction
Distribution patterns of species throughout geographic areas can usually be explained through a combination of historical factors such as: speciation, extinction, continental drift, and glaciation. Through observation of the species geographic distribution, we can see related variations at sea level, river routes, habitats, and river catchings. In addition, this science considers the geographic constraints of the land and isolation areas, as well as the available ecosystem energy supplies.
During the period of ecological change, biogeography includes studies on plant and animal species in: their living habitat and/or their current refugium ; their temporary residence; and/or their local survival. As author David Quammen writes, "... biogeography does more than just ask Which species? and where . > and, what is sometimes more important, Why not? . "
Modern biogeography often uses Geographic Information Systems (GIS), to understand the factors that affect the distribution of organisms, and to predict future trends in the distribution of organisms. Often mathematical models and GIS are used to solve ecological problems that have a spatial aspect for them.
Biogeography is most observed on the islands of the world. These habitats are often a more manageable study area because their habitats are denser than larger terrestrial ecosystems. The islands are also an ideal location because they allow scientists to see the habitat that newly invasive species have recently colonized and can observe how they spread throughout the island and transform it. They can then apply their understanding to similar but more complex terrestrial habitats. The islands are very diverse in their biomes, ranging from tropical to arctic climates. The diversity of these habitats allows for the study of species in different parts of the world.
A scientist who recognizes the importance of this geographical location is Charles Darwin, who says in his journal "The Zoology of Archipelagoes would be worthy of research". Two chapters in On Origin of Species are reserved for geographic distribution.
Maps Biogeography
History
18th century
The first discovery that contributed to the development of biogeography as a science began in the mid-18th century, when Europeans roamed the world and discovered the biodiversity of life. During the 18th century, much of the world view was shaped around religion and for many natural theologians, the Bible. Carl Linnaeus, in the mid-18th century, initiated ways to classify organisms through his exploration of undiscovered territories. When he notices that the species is not always what he believes, he develops Mountain Explanations to explain the distribution of biodiversity. When Noah's ark landed on Mount Ararat and the waters receded, the animals were scattered at various altitudes on the mountain. It shows different species in various climates proving that species are not constant. Linnaeus's findings set the basis for ecological biogeography. Through his strong belief in Christianity, he was inspired to classify the living world, which then gave way to additional accounts of secular views about geographic distribution. He argues that animal structure is closely related to its physical environment. This is important for the theory of the distribution of rivals George Louis Buffon.
After Linnaeus, Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon observed a shift in climate and how species spread throughout the world as a result. He was the first to see various groups of organisms in different regions of the world. Buffon sees similarities between several regions which led him to believe that at one point the continents were connected and then separated them and caused the species differences. His hypothesis is described by his books, Histoire Naturelle, and GÃÆ' Â © nale et ParticuliÃÆ'¨re, where he argues that different geographical regions will have different life forms. This is inspired by his observations of comparing the Old World and the New World, as he determines the different species variations of the two regions. Buffon believes there is an event of species creation, and that the various regions of the world are home to a variety of species, which is an alternative view compared to Linnaeus. Buffon's law ultimately becomes the principle of biogeography by explaining how similar environments are the habitat for comparable types of organisms. Buffon also studied the fossils that led him to believe that the earth was more than tens of thousands of years old, and humans did not live long there compared to the age of the earth.
After this period of exploration, the Era of Enlightenment emerged in Europe, which attempted to explain the patterns of biodiversity observed by Buffon and Linnaeus. At the end of the 18th century, Alexander von Humboldt, known as the "founder of plant geography", developed the concept of a physical generale to show the unity of science and how species fit together. As one of the first to contribute empirical data to biogeography through his journey as an explorer, he observed differences in climate and vegetation. The Earth is divided into regions which it defines as tropical, subtropical, and Arctic regions and within these regions there are similar vegetation forms. This eventually allows him to create an isotherm, which allows scientists to see life patterns in different climates. He contributed his observations to the findings of botanical geography by earlier scientists, and sketched a description of the biotic and abiotic features of the earth in his book, Cosmos .
Augustin de Candolle contributed to the field of biogeography as he observed the competition of species and some of the differences that influenced the discovery of the diversity of life. He was a Swiss botanist and created the First Botanical Nomenclature Law in his Prodromus. He discusses the distribution of plants and his theories ultimately have a profound impact on Charles Darwin, who was inspired to consider the adaptation and evolution of species after learning about botany geography. De Candolle is the first to illustrate the difference between the pattern of distribution of small and large scale organisms around the world.
19th century
In the 19th century, some additional scientists contributed a new theory to develop the concept of biogeography further. Charles Lyell, became one of the first contributors in the 19th century, developed the Theory of Uniformitarianism after studying fossils. This theory explains how the world was not created by a single disaster event, but from the events and locations of creation. Uniformitarianism also introduces the idea that Earth is actually much older than previously received. Using this knowledge, Lyell concluded that the species may be extinct. As he notes that the Earth's climate is changing, he realizes that the distribution of species must also change. Lyell argues that climate change complements vegetation changes, thus linking the surrounding environment with a variety of species. This greatly influenced Charles Darwin in the development of the theory of evolution.
Charles Darwin is a natural theologian who studies all over the world, and most importantly in the Galapagos Islands. Darwin introduced the idea of ​​natural selection, because he theorized previously accepted ideas that the species was static or unchanged. His contributions to biogeography and the theory of evolution differed from other explorers of his time, as he developed a mechanism to describe the ways in which species change. His influential ideas include the development of theories about the struggle for existence and natural selection. Darwin's theory embarked on a biological segment for biogeographic and empirical studies, allowing future scientists to develop ideas about the geographic distribution of organisms around the world.
Alfred Russel Wallace studied the distribution of flora and fauna in the Amazon Basin and Malay Archipelago in the mid-19th century. His research was essential for further biogeographic development, and he was later dubbed the "father of Biogeography". Wallace conducts field research examining habits, breeding and migration trends, and feeding behavior of thousands of species. He studied the distribution of butterflies and birds compared to the presence or absence of geographic barriers. His observations led him to conclude that the number of organisms present in a community depends on the amount of food sources in a particular habitat. Wallace believes that species are dynamic by responding to biotic and abiotic factors. He and Philip Sclater see biogeography as a source of support for the theory of evolution because they use Darwin's conclusions to explain how biogeography resembles the heritage records of species. Key findings, such as the sharp differences in fauna on both sides of the Wallace Line, and the sharp differences that exist between North and South America before the relatively recent junction of the fauna can only be understood in this regard. Otherwise, the field of biogeography will be seen as purely descriptive.
the 20th and 21st centuries
Moving into the 20th century, Alfred Wegener introduced the Continental Drift theory in 1912, though not widely accepted until the 1960s. This theory is revolutionary because it changes the way everyone thinks about species and their distribution around the world. This theory explains how the earlier continents joined together in one large land, Pangea, and slowly drifted away because of the movement of the plates below the Earth's surface. The evidence for this theory is the geological similarities between various locations around the world, the fossil comparisons of the various continents, and the jigsaw puzzle form from the land on Earth. Although Wegener does not know the mechanism of the Continental Drift concept, this contribution to biogeographic studies is significant in a way that explains the importance of environmental and geographic equations or differences as a result of other climates and pressures on the planet. Importantly, at the end of his career, Wegener acknowledged that his theory testing required the measurement of continental movement rather than the conclusion of the distribution of fossil species.
The Theory of Island Biogeography publication by Robert MacArthur and E.O. Wilson in 1967 showed that the species richness of a region can be predicted in terms of factors such as habitat areas, immigration rates and extinction rates. This adds to the old interest in island biogeography. Application of island biogeography theory to habitat fragments spurs the development of conservation biology and landscape ecology.
Classical biogeography has been expanded by the development of molecular systematics, creating a new discipline known as philogeography. This development allows scientists to test theories about the origin and spread of populations, such as endemic islands. For example, while classical biogeographers are able to speculate on the origin of species in the Hawaiian Islands, the phylumography allows them to test the linkage theory between this population and putative source populations in Asia and North America.
Biogeography continues as a study point for many life sciences and geographical students around the world, but may be under a broader broader title in institutions such as ecology or evolutionary biology.
In recent years, one of the most important and consequential developments in biogeography is to show how various organisms, including mammals such as monkeys and reptiles such as lizards, overcome obstacles such as the great oceans that many biogeographers previously believed to be impossible to cross. See also Oceanic spread.
Modern apps
Biogeography now incorporates various fields including but not limited to physical geography, geology, botany and plant biology, zoology, and general biology. The biogeographer's primary focus is on what environmental factors and what influence humans have on the distribution of specific species from the study. In terms of biogeography applications as current science, technological advances have enabled the imaging and processing of Earth satellites. The two main types of satellite imaging that are important in modern biogeography are the Global Production Efficiency Model (GLO-PEM) and Geographic Information System (GIS). GLO-PEM uses satellite imagery to provide "repeating recurrent, spatial, and time-specific repetitions of vegetation". These observations are on a global scale. GIS can show certain processes on the Earth's surface such as whale location, sea surface temperature, and bathymetry. Scientists today also use coral reefs to investigate the history of biogeography through the petrified reefs.
Paleobiogeography
Paleobiogeography is one step ahead to include paleogeographic data and tectonic plate considerations. Using molecular analyzes and reinforced by fossils, it is possible to show that birds perch evolved first in the adjacent areas of Australia or Antarctica (which at that time lies somewhat to the north and has a temperate climate). From there, they spread to other Gondwanan continents and Southeast Asia - parts of Laurasia were then closest to the origin of their deployment - in the late Paleogen, before reaching the global distribution in early Neogen. Not knowing that at the time of dispersal, the Indian Ocean is much narrower than it is today, and that South America is closer to Antarctica, it would be hard to explain the existence of many of the "ancient" lineages of birds in Africa, as well as the distribution of the United States subosina.
Paleobiogeography also helps limit the hypothesis at times of biogeographic events such as vicariance and geodispersal, and provides unique information about the formation of regional biota. For example, data from species-level phylogenetic and biogeographic studies tell us that the Amazonian fish fauna accumulates gradually over a period of tens of millions of years, primarily by using allopathic speciation, and in the arena that spans most of the region. tropical South America (Albert & amp; Reis 2011). In other words, unlike some of the famous gill fauna (Galapagos sparrows, Hawaiian drosophilid flies, African rift lichen cichlid), species rich ichthyofauna species Amazon are not the result of recent adaptation radiation.
For freshwater organisms, the landscape is divided naturally into a discrete drainage basin by a watershed, isolated episodically and reassembled by erosion processes. In areas such as the Amazon Basin (or the larger Amazonia in general, the Amazon basin, the Orinoco basin, and the Guianas) with very low (flat) topographical reliefs, many waterways have a very reticulated history during geologic time. In such a context, stream drainage is an important factor influencing the evolution and distribution of freshwater organisms. Stream capture occurs when the upstream part of a river drainage is diverted to the downstream part of the adjacent basin. This may occur as a result of tectonic lift (or decrease), natural damages created by landslides, or forward or lateral erosion of the watershed between adjacent basins.
Drafts and fields
Biogeography is a synthetic science, related to geography, biology, soil science, geology, climatology, ecology and evolution.
Some basic concepts in biogeography include:
- alopathic speciation - species separation by geographically isolated population evolution
- evolution - changes in the genetic composition of a population
- extinct - loss of species
- deployment - population movement away from its point of origin, associated with migration
- endemic area
- geodispersal - erosion barriers to biotic dispersion and gene flow, allowing extending the range and incorporation of previously isolated biota
- ranges and distribution vicariance - the formation of barriers to the spread and flow of the biotic genus, which tends to divide species and biota, causing speciation and extinction; vicariance biogeography is the field that studies these patterns
Comparative biogeography
The study of comparative biogeography can follow two main lines of investigation:
- Systematic biogeography, the study of biotic area relationships, their distribution, and hierarchical classification
- Evolutionary biogeography, the proposed evolutionary mechanism responsible for organismal distribution. Possible mechanisms include broad taxa that are disturbed by continental rupture or individual episodes of long range motion.
Regionalization of biogeography
There are many types of biogeographic units used in the scheme of regionalization of biogeography, as there are many criteria (species composition, physiognomy, ecological aspects) and hierarchical schemes: biogeography (ecozones), bioregion (sensu stricto), ecoregions, zoogeography area, floristic area, vegetation type, biome, etc.
The term biogeographic unit, biogeographic area or bioregion sensu lato , can be used for this category, irrespective of its rank.
More recently, the International Code of Nomenclature is proposed for biogeography.
See also
Notes and references
Further reading
- Albert, J. S., & amp; R. E. Reis (2011). Historical Biotropics of Neotrophic Freshwater Fish . University of California Press, Berkeley. 424 pp.
- Albert, J.S.; Crampton, W.G.R. (2010). "Geography and ecological diversification in Neotropical freshwaters". Natural Education . 1 (10): 3. Ã,
- Cox, C. B. (2001). Biogeographic areas are reconsidered. Biogeographic Journal , 28: 511-523, [4].
- Ebach, M.C. (2015). The origin of biogeography. The role of biological classification in early plant and animal geography. Dordrecht: Springer, xiv 173 pp., [5].
- Lieberman, B. S. (2001). "Paleobiogeography: using fossils to study global change, tectonic plates, and evolution". Kluwer Academic, Plenum Publishing, [6].
- Lomolino, M. V., & amp; Brown, J. H. (2004). Biogeography Foundation: classic paper with comments . University of Chicago Press, [7].
- MacArthur, Robert H. (1972). Geographical Ecology . New York: Harper & amp; Line.
- McCarthy, Dennis (2009). Here is the Komodo dragon: how the study of the distribution of animals and plants revolutionizes our view of life and the Earth . Oxford & amp; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-954246-8.
- Millington, A., Blumler, M. & amp; Schickhoff, U. (Eds.). (2011). The SAGE handbook of biogeography. Sage, London, [8].
- Nelson, G.J. (1978). From Candolle to Croizat: Commentary on the history of biogeography. Journal of the History of Biology , 11: 269-305.
- Udvardy, M. D. F. (1975). World biogeographic province classification . IUCN Occasional Paper no. 18. Morges, Switzerland: IUCN. [9]
External links
- International Biogeography Society
- Systematic & amp; Evolutionary Biogeographical Society
- Classic Classical Studies in Biogeography, Distribution and Diversity: Until 1950
- Early Classical Studies in Biogeography, Distribution, and Diversity: 1951-1975
- Some Biogeographers, Evolutionists, and Ecologists: Chrono-Biographical Sketches
- Main Journal
- Biogeographic Journal homepage.
- Global Ecology and Biogeography homepage. homepage
- Ecography .
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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