Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and improving human health through organized efforts and choice of public, organizational, public and private information, communities and individuals". Analyzing people's health and threats is the foundation for public health. The questionable "Public" can be as small as a few people, entire village or can be as large as several continents, in the case of a pandemic. "Health" takes into account physical, mental and social well-being. It's not just the absence of disease or weakness, according to the World Health Organization. Public health is interdisciplinary. For example, epidemiology, biostatistics, and health care are all relevant. Environmental health, public health, behavioral health, health economics, public policy, mental health and safety, gender issues in health, sexual and reproductive health are other important sub-areas.
Public health aims to improve the quality of life through the prevention and treatment of diseases, including mental health. This is done through case monitoring and health indicators, and through the promotion of healthy behaviors. Common public health initiatives include promoting handwashing and breast-feeding, vaccination delivery, suicide prevention and the distribution of condoms to control the spread of sexually transmitted diseases.
Modern public health practice requires a multidisciplinary team of community and professional health workers. Teams may include epidemiologists, biostatists, medical assistants, community health nurses, midwives or medical microbiologists. Depending on the needs of the environmental health officer or public health inspector, bioethician, and even veterinarian, gender expert, sexual and reproductive health specialist can be called.
Access to health care and public health initiatives is a difficult challenge in developing countries. Public health infrastructure is still growing.
Video Public health
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The focus of public health interventions is to prevent and manage disease, injury and other health conditions through case monitoring and promotion of healthy behaviors, communities and the environment. Many diseases can be prevented through simple and non-medical methods. For example, studies have shown that handwashing with simple soaps can prevent the spread of many infectious diseases. In other cases, treating diseases or controlling pathogens can be important to prevent their spread to others, either during outbreaks of contagious diseases or through contamination of food or water supplies. Public health communication programs, condom vaccination and distribution programs are examples of public health precautions. This size has contributed greatly to population health and increased life expectancy.
Public health plays an important role in disease prevention in both developing and developed countries through local health systems and non-governmental organizations. The World Health Organization (WHO) is an international body that coordinates and acts on global public health issues. Most countries have their own government public health agencies, sometimes known as health ministries, to respond to domestic health concerns. For example, in the United States, the frontline of public health initiatives is the state and local health departments. The United States Public Health Service (PHS), led by the Surgeon General of the United States, and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, headquartered in Atlanta, are involved with several international health activities, in addition to their national duties. In Canada, the Public Health Agency of Canada is a national institution responsible for public health, emergency preparedness and response, and the control and prevention of infectious and chronic diseases. The public health system in India is managed by the Ministry of Health & amp; Welfare Family of Indian government with state-owned health care facilities.
Maps Public health
Current practice
Community health program
Most governments recognize the importance of public health programs in reducing disease incidence, disability, and the effects of aging and other physical and mental health conditions, although public health generally receives much less government funding than drugs. The public health program providing vaccinations has made progress in promoting health, including the eradication of smallpox, a disease that has plagued mankind for thousands of years.
The World Health Organization (WHO) identifies the core functions of public health programs including:
- provide leadership on matters of health importance and engage in partnerships where joint action is necessary;
- form a research agenda and stimulate the creation, translation, and dissemination of valuable knowledge;
- establishing norms and standards and promoting and monitoring their application;
- articulating ethical-based policy options and evidence;
- monitor the health situation and assess health trends.
In particular, public health surveillance programs can: be supported from
- serves as an early warning system for future public emergencies;
- documenting the impact of the intervention, or tracking progress toward a defined goal; and
- monitor and clarify the epidemiology of health problems, allow priorities to be established, and inform health policies and strategies.
- diagnose, investigate, and monitor health and public health hazards
Public health monitoring has led to the identification and prioritization of many of the public health problems facing the world today, including HIV/AIDS, diabetes, waterborne diseases, zoonotic disease and antibiotic resistance that lead to the re-emergence of infectious diseases such as tuberculosis. Antibiotic resistance, also known as drug resistance, is the theme of World Health Day 2011. Despite prioritizing important public health issues, Laurie Garrett believes that there are consequences. When foreign aid is channeled to special programs of disease, the importance of public health is generally ignored. The problem of public electric stoves is considered to create a lack of funds to combat other diseases that exist in a country.
For example, WHO reports that at least 220 million people worldwide suffer from diabetes. The incidence increases rapidly, and it is projected that the number of diabetic deaths will double by 2030. In the June 2010 edition of The Lancet medical journal, the authors suggest that "The fact that type 2 diabetes, the most preventable disorder , has reached epidemic proportions is a public health insult. "The risk of type 2 diabetes is closely related to the increasing problem of obesity. The WHO's latest estimate as of June 2016 highlights that globally approximately 1.9 billion adults are overweight by 2014, and 41 million children under the age of five are overweight by 2014. The United States is a leading country with 30.6 % of the population is obese. Mexico trailed behind with 24.2% and England with 23%. Once considered a problem in high-income countries, it is now increasing in low-income countries, especially in urban areas. Many public health programs are increasingly dedicating attention and resources to obesity issues, with a view to addressing underlying causes including healthy diet and physical exercise.
Some programs and policies related to public health promotion and prevention can be controversial. One example is programs that focus on prevention of HIV transmission through safe sex campaigns and needle exchange programs. Another is tobacco smoking control. Changing smoking behavior requires a long-term strategy, unlike the fight against infectious diseases, which usually takes less time to effect to be observed. Many countries have implemented major initiatives to reduce cigarettes, such as tax increases and smoking bans in some or all public places. Proponents argue by presenting evidence that smoking is one of the main killers, and therefore the government has a duty to reduce mortality rates, both through the passive restriction (both hands) of smoking and by giving fewer opportunities for people to smoke. Opponents say that this undermines individual freedom and personal responsibility, and worries that the state can dare to eradicate more and more choices in the name of better health of the population as a whole.
At the same time, while contagious diseases have historically been at the top of the list as a global health priority, non-communicable diseases and underlying behavior-related risk factors have been below. However this changed, as illustrated by the United Nations which convened its first General Assembly Special Meeting on the issue of non-communicable diseases in September 2011.
Many health problems are due to maladaptive personal behavior. From the perspective of evolutionary psychology, excessive consumption of harmful new substances is due to the activation of evolving reward systems for substances such as drugs, tobacco, alcohols, refined salts, fats, and carbohydrates. New technologies such as modern transportation also cause reduced physical activity. Research has found that behavior more effectively changed by taking evolutionary motivation into consideration and not just presenting information about health effects. Thus, increased use of soap and hand washing to prevent diarrhea is much more effectively promoted if lack of use is associated with emotion of disgust. Disgust is a system that evolves to avoid contact with substances that spread infectious diseases. Examples may include films showing how dirt is contaminating food. The marketing industry has long known the importance of associating products with high status and attractiveness to others. Conversely, it has been argued that emphasizing the harmful and undesirable effects of smoking tobacco on others and applying smoking bans in public places is very effective in reducing smoking habits.
Application in health care
As well as seeking to improve the health of the population through the implementation of specific population-level interventions, public health contributes to medical care by identifying and assessing population needs for health care services, including:
- Assess the current service and evaluate whether they meet the goals of the health care system
- Ensure conditions as disclosed by health professionals, the public and other stakeholders
- Identify the most appropriate intervention
- Consider the effects on resources for the proposed interventions and assess their cost effectiveness
- Support decision-making in health care and plan health services including any necessary changes.
- Inform, educate, and empower people about health issues
Implement an effective upgrading strategy
To improve public health, an important strategy is to promote modern medicine and scientific neutrality to encourage public health policies and campaigns, recommended by Armanda Solorzana, through case studies from the Rockefeller hookworm campaign in Mexico in the 1920s. Soloranza argues that public health policy can not only be political or economic. Political concerns may cause government officials to hide the actual number of people affected by the disease in their region, such as upcoming elections. Therefore, scientific neutrality in making public health policy is very important; it can ensure maintenance needs are met regardless of political and economic conditions.
The history of public health care clearly demonstrates the global effort to improve health care for all. However, in modern medicine, real and measurable changes are not clearly visible, and critics argue that this lack of improvement is due to ineffective methods being implemented. As Paul E. Farmer puts it, structural intervention may have a major impact, but there are many issues as to why this strategy has not been incorporated into the health system. One of the main reasons he proposed could be the fact that doctors are not trained to implement structural interventions, which means that basic health care professionals can not apply this improvement. While structural interventions can not be the only area for improvement, the lack of coordination between socio-economic factors and health care for the poor can be counterproductive, and ultimately lead to greater inequality between health care services received by the rich and by the poor. Unless health care is no longer treated as a commodity, global public health will ultimately not be achieved. Thus, without changing the mode of delivery of health services to those with fewer access, the universal goal of public health care can not be achieved.
Another reason why measurable changes may be overlooked in public health is because the agencies themselves may not measure the effectiveness of their programs. Perrault et al. analyzed more than 4,000 published goals of the Community Health Enhancement Plan (CHIP) of 280 accredited and unaccredited public health agencies in the US, and found that most objectives - around two-thirds - focused on achieving institutional output (eg developing communications plans, installing sidewalks, disseminating data to the public). Only about one-third of the focus seeks to make measurable changes in the populations they serve (ie change the knowledge, attitudes, behavior of people). What this study shows is that if agencies focus solely on task completion (ie, output) and do not have a focus on measuring the real changes in their population with their activities, it should not be surprising when measurable changes are not reported. Perrault et al. advocate for public health agencies to work with them in the disciplines of Health Communication for measurable results of craft purposes, and to assist agencies in developing tools and methods to be able to track more proximal changes in their target population (eg, knowledge and shift attitudes ) that may be influenced by activities undertaken by the agency.
Public Health 2.0
Public Health 2.0 is a public health movement aimed at making the field more accessible to the general public and more user driven. This term is used in three senses. In the first sense, "Public Health 2.0" is similar to "Health 2.0" and explains the ways in which traditional public health practitioners and institutions reach (or reach out) to the public through social media and health blogs.
In a second sense, "Public Health 2.0" describes public health research using data collected from social networking sites, search engine queries, cell phones, or other technologies. The latest example is a proposal of a statistical framework using user-generated content online (from social media or search engine queries) to estimate the impact of an influenza vaccination campaign in the UK.
In a third sense, "Public Health 2.0" is used to describe a user-driven public health activities. An example is the collection and sharing of information on environmental radiation levels after the March 2011 tsunami in Japan. In all cases, Public Health 2.0 refers to ideas from Web 2.0, such as crowdsourcing, information sharing, and user-centered design. While many individual healthcare providers have begun making their own personal contributions to "Public Health 2.0" through personal blogs, social profiles, and websites, other larger organizations, such as the American Heart Association (AHA) and United Medical Education (UME) , has a larger team of employees centered around online education, research, and online health training. These private organizations recognize the need for free and accessible healthcare materials, often building libraries of educational articles.
Developing country
There is a big difference in access to health care and public health initiatives between developed and developing countries. In developing countries, public health infrastructure is still growing. There may not be enough trained health workers, financial resources or, in some cases, sufficient knowledge to provide basic medical care and disease prevention. As a result, most illness and deaths in developing countries are generated from and contribute to extreme poverty. For example, many African governments spend less than US $ 10 per person per year on health care, while in the United States, the federal government spends about US $ 4,500 per capita by 2000. However, spending on health care should not be equated with health spending community. Public health measures may not generally be considered "health care" in the strictest sense. For example, mandating the use of seatbelts in cars can save countless lives and contribute to the health of the population, but usually the money spent enforcing these rules will not count as money spent on health care.
Most developing countries are still plagued by preventable or treatable infectious diseases. In addition, many developing countries are also experiencing epidemiological shifts and polarizations in which people now experience more chronic disease impacts as life expectancy increases, the poor are strongly affected by chronic diseases and infections. Another major public health problem in developing countries is poor maternal and child health, exacerbated by malnutrition and poverty. WHO reports that the lack of exclusive breastfeeding during the first six months of life accounts for more than one million child deaths that can be avoided each year. Intermittent prevention therapy aimed at treating and preventing malaria episodes among pregnant women and children is one measure of public health in endemic countries.
Every day bringing headlines on the front page about public health: newly emerging infectious diseases such as SARS, rapidly moving from China (see Public health in China) to Canada, the United States and other geographically distant countries; reduce injustice in access to health services through publicly funded health insurance programs; HIV/AIDS pandemic and its spread from certain high-risk groups to the general population in many countries, such as in South Africa; increased obesity and increased rates of type II diabetes among children; the social, economic and health effects of teenage pregnancy; and public health challenges associated with natural disasters such as the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, Hurricane Katrina 2005 in the United States and the 2010 Haiti earthquake.
Since the 1980s, the growing field of population health has broadened the public health focus from individual behavior and risk factors to population-level issues such as inequality, poverty, and education. Modern public health is often concerned with addressing health determinants across populations. There is recognition that our health is influenced by many factors including where we live, our genetics, our income, our educational status and our social relationships; this is known as the "social determinant of health". Upstream movers such as the environment, education, employment, income, food security, housing, social inclusion and many others influence the distribution of health between and within the population and are often shaped by policy. A social gradient in health runs through society. The poorest generally suffer the worst health, but even the middle class will generally have worse health outcomes than the higher social strata. A new public health advocate for a population-based policy that improves health equitably.
Health Assistance in Developing Countries
Health aid to developing countries is an important source of public health funding for many developing countries. Health aid to developing countries has shown a significant increase after World War II as fears over the spread of the disease as a result of increased globalization and the epidemic of HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa emerged. From 1990 to 2010, total health aid from developed countries increased from 5.5 billion to 26.87 billion with rich countries continuing to donate billions of dollars each year in order to improve the health of the population. Some efforts, however, received a much larger proportion of funds such as HIV that received an increase in funds of more than $ 6 billion between 2000 and 2010 which more than doubled the increase seen in other sectors during those years. Health assistance has seen expansion through various channels including private philanthropy, non-governmental organizations, private foundations such as Bill & amp; Melinda Gates Foundation, bilateral donors, and multilateral donors such as the World Bank or UNICEF. In 2009, OECD health assistance totaled $ 12.47 billion, accounting for 11.4% of total bilateral aid. In 2009, multilateral donors found spending 15.3% of their total aid to improve public health. Recent data, however, show that international health aid has declined and may start to decline.
International Healthcare Debate
The debate exists questioning the efficacy of international health aid. Supporters of aid claim that health aid from rich countries is needed for developing countries to get out of the poverty trap. Opponents of health aid claims state that international health aid actually disrupts developmental development of developing countries, causes reliance on aid, and in many cases aid fails to reach recipients. For example, recently, health assistance was channeled to initiatives such as financing new technologies such as antiretroviral drugs, mosquito-borne mosquito nets, and new vaccines. The positive impact of this initiative can be seen in the eradication of smallpox and polio; However, critics claim that misuse or misplacement of funds can lead many of these efforts to never succeed.
Economic modeling based on the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation and the World Health Organization has shown a link between international health assistance in developing countries and the decline in adult mortality rates. However, a study 2014-2016 shows that potential confounding variables for this outcome are likely that aid is directed to countries after they are on track for improvement. However, the same study also showed that 1 billion dollars in health aid was associated with 364,000 fewer deaths between the ages of 0 and 5 in 2011.
Sustainable Development Goals
To address current and future challenges in addressing health problems in the world, the United Nations has developed the 2015 Sustainable Development Goals of the Millennium Development Goals of 2000 to be completed by 2030. This objective as a whole encompasses the entire spectrum of cross-country development, yet Goals 1-6 directly address health disparities, especially in developing countries. These six objectives address key issues in global public health: Poverty, Hunger and food security, Health, Education, Gender equality and women's empowerment, and water and sanitation. Public health officials can use this purpose to organize their own agenda and plan smaller scale initiatives for their organizations. These objectives are expected to reduce the burden of illness and injustice faced by developing countries and lead to a healthier future.
The relationship between sustainable development goals and many and well-established public health:
- Living below the poverty line is associated with worse health outcomes and could be even worse for people living in developing countries where extreme poverty is more common. A child born in poverty is twice as likely to die before the age of five compared with a child from a wealthier family.
- The adverse effects of hunger and malnutrition that can arise from systemic challenges with immense food security. The World Health Organization estimates that 12.9 percent of the population in developing countries is malnourished.
- Health challenges in developing countries are enormous, with "only half of women in developing countries receive the recommended amount of health care they need.
- Educational equity has not been achieved in the world. Public health efforts are hampered by this, as lack of education can lead to poorer health outcomes. This is demonstrated by the children of uneducated mothers having a lower survival rate than children born to mothers with primary or higher education levels. Cultural differences in the role of women vary by country, many gender inequalities are found in developing countries. Fighting this inequality has also proven to lead to better public health outcomes.
- In a World Bank study of populations in developing countries, it was found that when women have more control over household resources, children benefit through better access to food, health care, and education.
- Basic sanitation resources and access to clean water are human rights. However, 1.8 billion people worldwide use fecal contaminated drinking water sources, and 2.4 billion people do not have access to basic sanitation facilities such as toilets or latrines. This lack of resources causes about 1,000 children to die every day from preventable diarrhea from improved water and sanitation infrastructure.
US. Global Health Initiative
The U.S. Global Health Initiative created in 2009 by President Obama in an effort to have a more holistic and comprehensive approach to improving global health than previous disease-specific interventions. The Global Health Initiative is a six-year plan, "to develop a comprehensive US government strategy for global health, build a Presidential Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) to combat HIV and US efforts to address tuberculosis and malaria, and to focus on priorities other global health, including neglected tropical diseases (NTD), maternal health, newborns and children (MNCH), family planning and reproductive health (FP/RH), nutrition and strengthening of health systems (HSS) ". The GHI program is being implemented in more than 80 countries worldwide and works closely with the United States Agency for International Development, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, United States Deputy Secretary of State.
There are Seven Major Principles:
- Women, girls, and gender equality
- Strategic coordination and integration
- Strengthen and improve multilaterally and other partners
- Country ownership
- Sustainability through the Health System
- Improve metrics, monitoring, and evaluation
- Promote research and innovation
The largest fund of the Global Health Initiatives is the Global Fund to Combat AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria created in 2001 that received $ 19 billion in health aid between 2002 and 2010. The Global Health Initiative has been very successful in achieving their stated goals, but Their narrow focus of purpose leaves the question of how and whether these initiatives have improved public health in the developing world as a whole. Furthermore, the limits to measuring and applying these health interventions are that most interventions need to be evaluated over a longer period to see the results, but if progress is not visible in the short run, the likelihood of sustainable funding is underestimated. The aid effectiveness agenda is a useful tool for measuring the impact of large-scale programs such as the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria and the Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunizations that have achieved rapid and visible results. The Global Fund claims that its efforts have provided antiretroviral treatment to more than three million people worldwide. GAVI claims that the vaccination program has prevented more than 5 million deaths since its inception in 2000.
Education and training
Education and training of public health professionals is available worldwide at the School of Public Health, School of Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine, School of Nursing, and School of Public Affairs. This training usually requires a university degree with a focus on core disciplines of biostatistics, epidemiology, health care administration, health policy, health education, behavioral sciences, gender issues, sexual and reproductive health, public health nutrition and environmental and occupational health. In a global context, the field of public health education has grown tremendously in recent decades, supported by institutions such as the World Health Organization and the World Bank, among others. The operational structure is formulated by strategic principles, with educational and career paths guided by a competency framework, all requiring modulation in accordance with local, national and global realities. It is very important for the health of the population that countries assess the human health needs of their communities and develop their capacity to provide this capacity, and not rely on other countries to supply it.
School of public health: US perspective
In the United States, the Welch-Rose Report of 1915 has been seen as the basis for the critical movement in the history of the institutional breakdown between public health and medicine as it leads to the establishment of a public health school supported by the Rockefeller Foundation. The report was written by William Welch, founder of the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, and Wickliffe Rose of the Rockefeller Foundation. This report focuses more on research than on practical education. Some have blamed the 1916 Rockefeller Foundation's decision to support the establishment of a public health school to create a split between public health and medicine and legitimize the rift between a drug laboratory examination of disease mechanisms and nonclinical public health concerns with environmental and social influences on health and fitness.
Although public health schools have been established in Canada, Europe and North Africa, the United States still maintains the traditional system of public health faculty within their medical institutions. The $ 25,000 donation of businessman Samuel Zemurray instituted the School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine at Tulane University in 1912 awarded his first public health doctorate in 1914. The Johns Hopkins School of Health and Public Health became an independent institution that provided a degree for research and training in health society and the largest public health training facility in the United States, when it was founded in 1916. In 1922, a public health school was established in Columbia, Harvard and Yale on the Hopkins model. In 1999 there were twenty-nine public health schools in the US, enrolling about fifteen thousand students.
Over the years, the types of students and training provided have also changed. Initially, students enrolled in public health schools usually have obtained a medical degree; Community health school training is mostly second degree for medical professionals. However, in 1978, 69% of American students enrolled in public health schools had only a bachelor's degree.
Degrees in public health
Community health schools offer a variety of degrees that generally fall into two categories: professional or academic. Two major postgraduate degrees are Master of Public Health (MPH) or Master of Science in Public Health (MSPH). Doctoral studies in this field include the Doctor of Public Health (DrPH) and the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in a larger subspecialty of Public Health discipline. DrPH is considered a professional degree and a PhD as an academic degree.
Professional degree-oriented practice in public health settings. Master of Public Health, Public Health Doctor, Doctor of Health Sciences (DHSc) and Master of Health Care Administration are examples of titles directed to people who desire careers as public health practitioners in health departments, managed care and community-based organizations, hospitals and consulting firms, among others. The Master of Public Health degree is broadly divided into two categories, which emphasize more on epidemiological and statistical insights as the scientific basis of public health practice and those covering more eclectic methodologies. A Master of Science of Public Health is similar to MPH but is considered an academic degree (as opposed to a professional degree) and places more emphasis on scientific methods and research. The same difference can be made between DrPH and DHSc. DrPH is considered a professional degree and DHSc is an academic degree.
Academic degrees are more oriented towards those with an interest in the scientific public health and preventive medicine basis who wish to pursue careers in research, university teaching in graduate programs, policy analysis and development, and other high-level public health positions. Examples of academic degrees are Master of Science, Doctor of Philosophy, Doctor of Science (SCD), and Doctor of Health Science (DHSc). Different doctoral programs from MPH and other professional programs with the addition of advanced courses and the nature and scope of the dissertation research project.
In the United States, the School of Public Health Association represents the accredited community health education council (CEPH). Delta Omega is an honor society for postgraduate study in public health. Society was founded in 1924 at Johns Hopkins School of Health and Public Health. Currently, there are about 68 chapters throughout the United States and Puerto Rico.
History
Initial history
Public health has its roots in ancient times. From the very beginning of human civilization, it was recognized that contaminated water and lack of proper waste disposal spread infectious diseases (miasma theories). The early religions sought to regulate behaviors that were specifically related to health, of the type of food eaten, to certain indulgent behavioral arrangements, such as drinking alcohol or sexual intercourse. Leaders are responsible for the health of their subjects to ensure social stability, prosperity, and maintaining order.
In Roman times, it was understood that the proper diversion of human waste is an important public health principle in urban areas. The ancient Chinese doctors developed the practice of varianolation after the smallpox epidemic around 1000 BC. A person without disease can get some measure of immunity against it by inhaling the dry crust formed around the lesions of the infected individual. Also, children are protected by inoculating scratches on their forearms with pus from the lesion.
In 1485, the Republic of Venice established a Permanent Court of health inspector with special attention to the prevention of the spread of epidemics in the region from abroad. The three supervisors were initially appointed by the Venetian Senate. In 1537, it was assumed by the Supreme Council, and in 1556 added two judges, with the task of control, on behalf of the Republic, the efforts of the supervisors.
However, according to Michel Foucault, the epidemic model of the government was later disputed by the cholera model. The cholera pandemic devastated Europe between 1829 and 1851, and was first championed by the use of what Foucault calls "social medicine," which focuses on flux, air circulation, cemetery, etc. All of that worries, born of the theory of poison. disease, mixed with the urbanistic concerns for population management, which Foucault defined as a "biopower" concept. The Germans conceptualize this in Polizeiwissenschaft ("Police science").
Modern public health
The 18th century experienced rapid growth in voluntary hospitals in England. The latter part of the century brings the formation of an archetype of improvement in public health over the next two centuries: social crime is identified, private philanthropists bring attention to it, and changing public opinion leads to government action.
The practice of vaccination became prevalent in the 1800s, following the work of pioneer Edward Jenner in treating smallpox. James Lind's discovery of scurvy between seafarers and mitigation through fruit introduction on a long journey was published in 1754 and led to the adoption of this idea by the Royal Navy. Efforts are also made to disseminate health issues to the wider public; in 1752, British physician Sir John Pringle published Observations on Army Diseases in Camp and Garrison, where he advocated the importance of adequate ventilation in military barracks and the provision of latrines for soldiers..
With the Industrial Revolution occurring, the standard of living among the working population began to deteriorate, with the urban conditions narrow and unhealthy. In the first four decades of the 19th century alone, the London population doubled and even greater growth rates were recorded in new industrial cities, such as Leeds and Manchester. This rapid urbanization exacerbates the spread of disease in large conurbations built around workplaces and factories. These settlements are narrow and primitive without regular sanitation. Disease is inevitable and its incubation in these areas is driven by the lifestyles of the poor. Unavailable housing led to rapid growth of slum settlements and per capita mortality rates began to increase, almost doubling in Birmingham and Liverpool. Thomas Malthus warned of the dangers of overpopulation in 1798. His ideas, as well as the ideas of Jeremy Bentham, became very influential in the government in the early years of the nineteenth century.
Public health rules
The first attempt to reform sanitation and the establishment of public health institutions was conducted in the 1840s. Thomas Southwood Smith, a physician at London Fever Hospital, began writing papers on the importance of public health, and was one of the first physicians brought to provide evidence before the Poor Law Commission in the 1830s, along with Neil Arnott and James Phillips Kay. Smith told the government the importance of quarantine and sanitation improvements to limit the spread of infectious diseases such as cholera and yellow fever.
The Poor Law Commission reported in 1838 that "the expenditures necessary for the adoption and maintenance of preventative measures will ultimately amount to less than the cost of illnesses are now continually inflicted". It recommends the implementation of large-scale government engineering projects to reduce the conditions that allow for the spread of disease. The Health of Towns Association was formed in Exeter on December 11, 1844, and vigorously campaigned for the development of public health in the United Kingdom. Its formation followed the establishment of the City Health Commission of 1843, headed by Sir Edwin Chadwick, who produced a series of reports on poor and unhealthy conditions in British cities.
This national and local movement led to the General Health Act, finally ratified in 1848. It aims to improve the conditions of urban sanitation and densely populated places in England and Wales by placing water supplies, sewerage, drainage, cleaning and paving in under one local body with the Public Health Council as the central authority. The law was passed by the Liberal Lord Lord Russell government, in response to Edwin Chadwick's insistence. Chadwick's seminal report on The Population Sanitation Condition was published in 1842 and followed up with an additional report a year later.
Vaccination for various diseases was made compulsory in the United Kingdom in 1851, and in 1871 the law required a comprehensive enrollment system run by designated vaccination officers.
Further interventions are made by a series of subsequent Public Health Laws, in particular the 1875 Act. Reforms include latrinization, drainage construction, regular garbage collection followed by burning or disposal at landfills, water supply and standing water drainage to prevent mosquito breeding.
The Infectious Disease (Notification) Act 1889 mandates the reporting of infectious diseases to local sanitation authorities, which can then perform actions such as hospital transfer and disinfection of homes and property.
In the United States, the first public health organization based on the state health department and local health council was established in New York City in 1866.
Epidemiology
Epidemiological science was founded by John Snow who identified a contaminated public well as a source of cholera outbreak of 1854 in London. Dr. Snow believes in the germ theory of the disease as opposed to the prevailing miasma theory. He first published his theory in an essay, In Cholera Communication Mode , in 1849, followed by a more detailed treatise in 1855 combining the results of his investigation of the role of water supply at the 1854 Soho Epidemic.
Speaking with the locals (with Pastor Henry Whitehead's help), he identified the source of the plague as a public water pump on Broad Street (now Broadwick Street). Although the examination of the chemistry and the Snow Microscope from a water sample from a Broad Street pump did not convincingly prove the danger, but his research on the pattern of the disease was convincing enough to persuade the local council to disable the well pump by taking off its handle.
The snow then uses a point map to illustrate the cholera case clusters around the pump. He also used statistics to illustrate the relationship between water source quality and cholera cases. He pointed out that Southwark and Vauxhall Waterworks Company took water from polluted parts of the River Thames and sent water to homes, leading to an increase in cholera events. Snow's research is a major event in the history of public health and geography. This is considered an epidemiological establishment.
Disease control
With pioneering work in the bacteriology of French chemist Louis Pasteur and German scientist Robert Koch, methods to isolate the bacteria responsible for certain diseases and vaccines for treatment developed at the turn of the 20th century. British physician Ronald Ross identified mosquitoes as a carrier of malaria and laid the foundation for the fight against illness. Joseph Lister revolutionized surgery with the introduction of antiseptic surgery to remove the infection. The French epidemiologist Paul-Louis Simond proved that the plague was carried by ticks on the backs of mice, and Cuban scientists Carlos J. Finlay and the United States Walter Reed and James Carroll pointed out that mosquitoes carry the virus responsible for yellow fever. Brazilian scientist Carlos Chagas identifies tropical diseases and their vectors.
With the onset of the epidemiological transition and since the prevalence of infectious diseases declined until the 20th century, public health began to focus more on chronic diseases such as cancer and heart disease. Previous attempts in many developed countries have led to a dramatic drop in infant mortality by means of preventive methods. In the UK, the infant mortality rate fell from over 15% in 1870 to 7% in 1930.
Country examples
French
France 1871-1914 follows well behind Bismarckian Germany, as well as Great Britain, in developing a welfare state including public health. Tuberculosis is the most feared disease of the day, especially affecting young people in their 20s. Germany set up strict public hygiene measures and public sanitaries, but France let private doctors tackle the problem, which made it with a much higher death rate. The French medical profession jealously guards its prerogative, and public health activists are not well organized or equally influential in Germany, the UK, or the United States. For example, there was a long battle over public health legislation that began in the 1880s as a campaign to reorganize state health care, to require the registration of infectious diseases, to mandate quarantine, and to promote poor health and housing regulations from 1850. However reformers are facing opposition from bureaucrats, politicians, and doctors. Because it was so threatening for so many interests, the proposal was debated and postponed for 20 years before becoming law in 1902. Success finally comes when the government realizes that infectious diseases have a national security impact in weakening members of the military, and keeps the population growth at a far level under German.
United States
Modern public health began to develop in the 19th century, in response to advances in science that led to the understanding, source and spread of disease. When knowledge of infectious diseases increases, it means controlling them and preventing the infection from being developed. Once understood that this strategy will require broad community participation, disease control begins to be seen as a public responsibility. Various organizations and institutions were then created to implement this disease prevention strategy.
Most public health activities in the United States occurred at the city level before the mid-20th century. There are several activities at the national and state levels as well.
In the administration of the second president of the United States John Adams, Congress endorses the creation of hospitals for seafarers. As the US progresses, the scope of government health agencies is expanded. In the United States, public health officer Sara Josephine Baker, MD set up many programs to help the poor in New York City keep their babies healthy, lead a team of nurses to the crowded neighborhood of Hell's Kitchen and teach mothers how to dress, feed and bathe their baby.
Another major pioneer for public health in the US is Lillian Wald, who co-founded Henry Street Completion in New York. The Visiting Nurse Service of New York is an important organization to bring health care to the urban poor.
Dramatic increases in average lifespan in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, are widely credited for the achievement of public health, such as vaccination programs and control of many infectious diseases including polio, diphtheria, yellow fever and smallpox; effective health and safety policies such as road safety and occupational safety; increased family planning; tobacco control measures; and programs designed to reduce non-communicable diseases by acting on known risk factors such as a person's background, lifestyle and environment.
Another major improvement in public health is the decline in "urban punishment" caused by improved sanitation. These improvements include the chlorination of drinking water, filtration and waste treatment which leads to a decrease in deaths caused by waterborne diseases such as cholera and intestinal diseases. The Office of Indian Affairs (OIA) operates a large-scale field nursing program. Field nurses target native women for health education, emphasizing personal hygiene and infant care and nutrition.
Mexico
Public health issues were important to the Spanish empire during the colonial era. Epidemic diseases were a major factor in the decline of the indigenous population in the immediate era after the conquest of the 16th century and was a problem during the colonial era. The Spanish crown took steps in the eighteenth century Mexico to bring the rules to make the population healthier.
By the end of the nineteenth century, Mexico was in the process of modernization, and public health issues were once again addressed from a scientific standpoint. Even during the Mexican Revolution (1910-20), public health became an important concern, with a text on cleanliness published in 1916. During the Mexican Revolution, feminist and trained nurses Elena Arizmendi Mejia established the Neutral White Cross, caring for the wounded soldiers no problem. for what factions they are fighting against.
In the post-revolutionary period after 1920, improving public health was the revolutionary goal of the Mexican government. The Mexican state promotes the health of the Mexican population, with most of the resources going to the city. Concerns about disease conditions and social barriers to improving the health of Mexicans are important in establishing the Mexican Society for Eugenics. This movement evolved from the 1920s to the 1940s. Mexico is not alone in Latin America or the world in promoting eugenics. The government's campaign against disease and alcoholism is also seen as a public health promotion.
The Mexican Social Security Agency was established in 1943, during the reign of President Manuel Avila Camacho to deal with public health, pensions, and social security.
Cuban
Since the Cuban Revolution of 1959, the Cuban government has devoted vast resources to improving health conditions for its entire population through universal access to health care. Infant mortality dropped dramatically. Cuba's international militaryism as a policy has seen the Cuban government send doctors as a form of aid and exports to countries in need in Latin America, especially Venezuela, as well as Oceania and African countries.
Colombia and Bolivia
Public health is important elsewhere in Latin America in consolidating state power and integrating marginalized populations into nation-states. In Colombia, public health is a means of creating and applying civic ideas. In Bolivia, a similar impulse emerged after their 1952 revolution.
Ghana
Although curable and preventative, malaria remains a major public health problem and is the third leading cause of death in Ghana. In the absence of vaccines, mosquito control, or access to anti-malarial drugs, public health methods are the primary strategies for reducing the prevalence and severity of malaria. These methods include reducing breeding grounds, screening doors and windows, insecticide sprays, immediate treatment after infection, and use of insecticide treated bed nets. Distribution and sale of insecticide treated bed nets is a common and cost effective anti-malarial public health intervention; However, barriers to use exist including cost, hosehold and family organization, access to resources, and social and behavioral determinants that have not only been shown to affect the prevalence rate of malaria but also the use of mosquito nets.
See also
References
Further reading
External links
- EU-Health, the EU's official public health portal
- Healthy Village, Public Health Awareness and Advocacy
- Public Health - Education Articles by United Medical Education; public resources for health education related articles and emergency training in ACLS, PALS, and online BLS certification.
- What is Public Health? by the Association of Schools and Public Health Programs
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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